Myc

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V-myc myelocytomatosis viral oncogene homolog (avian)
File:PBB Protein MYC image.jpg
PDB rendering based on 1nkp.
Identifiers
Symbols MYC ; c-Myc
External IDs Template:OMIM5 Template:MGI HomoloGene: 31092
Orthologs
Template:GNF Ortholog box
Species Human Mouse
Entrez n/a n/a
Ensembl n/a n/a
UniProt n/a n/a
RefSeq (mRNA) n/a n/a
RefSeq (protein) n/a n/a
Location (UCSC) n/a n/a
PubMed search n/a n/a

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

Myc (c-Myc) is a protooncogene, which is overexpressed in a wide range of human cancers. When it is specifically-mutated, or overexpressed, it increases cell proliferation and functions as an oncogene. Myc gene encodes for a transcription factor that regulates expression of 15% of all genes [1] through binding on Enhancer Box sequences (E-boxes) and recruiting histone acetyltransferases (HATs). Myc belongs to Myc family of transcription factors, which also includes N-Myc and L-Myc genes. Myc-family transcription factors contain the bHLH/LZ (basic Helix-Loop-Helix Leucine Zipper) domain.

Discovery

Myc gene was first discovered in Burkitt's lymphoma patients. In Burkitt's lymphoma, cancer cells show chromosomal translocations, in which Chromosome 8 is frequently involved. Cloning the break point of the fusion chromosomes revealed a gene that was similar to myelocytomatosis viral oncogene (v-Myc). Thus, the newfound cellular gene was named c-Myc.

Structure

Myc belongs to Myc family of transcription factors, which also includes N-Myc and L-Myc genes. Myc family of transcription factors contain bHLH/LZ (basic Helix-Loop-Helix Leucine Zipper) domain. Myc protein, through its bHLH domain can bind to DNA, while the leucine zipper domain allows the dimerisation with its partner Max, another bHLH transcription factor.

Molecular Function

Myc protein is a transcription factor that activates expression of many genes through binding on consensus sequences (Enhancer Box sequences (E-boxes)) and recruiting histone acetyltransferases (HATs). It can also act as a transcriptional repressor. By binding Miz-1 transcription factor and displacing the p300 co-activator, it inhibits expression of Miz-1 target genes. In addition, myc has a direct role in the control of DNA replication.[2]

Myc is activated upon various mitogenic signals such as Wnt, Shh and EGF (via the MAPK/ERK pathway). By modifying the expression of its target genes, Myc activation results in numerous biological effects. The first to be discovered was its capability to drive cell proliferation (upregulates cyclins, downregulates p21), but it also plays a very important role in regulating cell growth (upregulates ribosomal RNA and proteins), apoptosis (downregulates Bcl-2), differentiation and stem cell self-renewal. Myc is a very strong proto-oncogene and it is very often found to be upregulated in many types of cancers. Myc overexpression stimulates gene amplification,[3] presumably through DNA over-replication.

There have been several studies that have clearly indicated Myc's role in cell competition.[4]

Myc-Nick

Myc-nick is a cytoplasmic form of Myc produced by a partial proteolytic cleavage of full-length c-Myc and N-Myc. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2923036/pdf/nihms219804.pdf). Myc cleavage is mediated by the calpain family of calcium-dependent cytosolic proteases (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calpain).

The cleavage of Myc by calpains is a constitutive process, but is enhanced under conditions that require rapid downregulation of Myc levels, such as during terminal differentiation. Upon cleavage, the C-terminus of Myc (containing the DNA binding domain) is degraded, while Myc-nick, the N-terminal segment 298-residue segment remains in the cytoplasm. Myc-nick contains binding domains for histone acetyltransferases and for ubiquitin ligases.

The functions of Myc-nick are currently under investigation, but this new Myc family member was found to regulate cell morphology, at least in part, by interacting with acetyl transferases to promote the acetylation of α-tubulin. Ectopic expression of Myc-nick accelerates the differentiation of committed myoblasts into muscle cells.


Animal Models

During the discovery of Myc gene, it was realized that chromosomes that translocate to Chromosome 8 contained immunoglobulin genes at the break point. Enhancers that normally drive expression of immunoglobin genes, now lead to overexpression of Myc proto-oncogene in lymphoma cells. To study the mechanism of tumorigenesis in Burkitt's lymphoma by mimicking expression pattern of Myc in these cancer cells, transgenic mouse models were developed. Myc gene placed under the control of IgM heavy chain enhancer in transgenic mice gives rise to mainly lymphomas. Later on, to study effects of Myc in other types of cancer, transgenic mice that overexpress Myc in different tissues (liver, breast) were also made. In all these mouse models overexpression of Myc causes tumorigenesis, illustrating the potency of Myc oncogene.

Interactions

Myc has been shown to interact with NMI,[5] NFYC,[6] NFYB,[7] Cyclin T1,[8] RuvB-like 1,[9][10] GTF2I,[11] BRCA1,[5][12][13][14] T-cell lymphoma invasion and metastasis-inducing protein 1,[15] ACTL6A,[10] PCAF,[16] MYCBP2,[17] MAPK8,[18] Bcl-2,[19] Transcription initiation protein SPT3 homolog,[16] SAP130,[16] DNMT3A,[20] Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3,[21] MAX,[22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 2,[21] MYCBP,[35] HTATIP,[36] ZBTB17,[37][38] Transformation/transcription domain-associated protein,[10][16][23][24] TADA2L,[16] PFDN5,[39][40] MAPK1,[19][41][42] TFAP2A,[43] P73,[44] TAF9,[16] YY1,[45] SMARCB1,[25] SMARCA4,[10][22] MLH1,[26] EP400[9] and let-7.[46][47][48]

Effects

A major effect of Myc is B cell proliferation.[49]

c-Myc induces AEG-1 or MTDH gene expression and in turn itself requires AEG-1 oncogene for its expression.

It is associated with carcinoma of the cervix,colon,breast,lung and stomach.

Cancer research

Except for early response genes, Myc universally upregulates gene expression. Furthermore the upregulation is nonlinear. Genes whose expression is already significantly upregulated in the absence of Myc are strongly boosted in the presence of Myc whereas genes whose expression is low in the absence Myc only get a small boost when Myc is present.[50]

Inactivation of SUMO-activating enzyme (SAE1 / SAE2) in the presence of Myc hyperactivation results in mitotic catastrophe and cell death in cancer cells. Hence inhibitors of SUMOylation may be a possible treatment for cancer.[51]

References

  1. ↑ Gearhart J, Pashos EE, Prasad MK, Pluripotency Redeux -- advances in stem-cell research, N Engl J Med 357(15):1469
  2. ↑ Dominguez-Sola D, Ying CY, Grandori C, Ruggiero L, Chen B, Li M, Galloway DA, Gu W, Gautier J, Dalla-Favera R (2007). "Non-transcriptional control of DNA replication by c-Myc". Nature. 448 (7152): 445–51. doi:10.1038/nature05953. PMID 17597761. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Denis N, Kitzis A, Kruh J, Dautry F, Corcos D (1991). "Stimulation of methotrexate resistance and dihydrofolate reductase gene amplification by c-myc". Oncogene. 6 (8): 1453–7. PMID 1886715. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Cristina Clavería, Giovanna Giovinazzo, Rocío Sierra, Miguel Torres (2013). "Myc-driven endogenous cell competition in the early mammalian embryo". Nature: 39–44. doi:10.1038/nature12389. PMID 23842495. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Li, Huchun (2002). "A novel tricomplex of BRCA1, Nmi, and c-Myc inhibits c-Myc-induced human telomerase reverse transcriptase gene (hTERT) promoter activity in breast cancer". J. Biol. Chem. United States. 277 (23): 20965–73. doi:10.1074/jbc.M112231200. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 11916966. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Taira, T (1999). "Cell cycle-dependent switch of up-and down-regulation of human hsp70 gene expression by interaction between c-Myc and CBF/NF-Y". J. Biol. Chem. UNITED STATES. 274 (34): 24270–9. doi:10.1074/jbc.274.34.24270. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 10446203. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Izumi, H (2001). "Mechanism for the transcriptional repression by c-Myc on PDGF beta-receptor". J. Cell. Sci. England. 114 (Pt 8): 1533–44. ISSN 0021-9533. PMID 11282029. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  8. ↑ Kanazawa, Satoshi (2003). "c-Myc recruits P-TEFb for transcription, cellular proliferation and apoptosis". Oncogene. England. 22 (36): 5707–11. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1206800. ISSN 0950-9232. PMID 12944920. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Fuchs, M (2001). "The p400 complex is an essential E1A transformation target". Cell. United States. 106 (3): 297–307. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00450-0. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 11509179. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Park, Jeonghyeon (2002). "BAF53 Forms Distinct Nuclear Complexes and Functions as a Critical c-Myc-Interacting Nuclear Cofactor for Oncogenic Transformation". Mol. Cell. Biol. United States. 22 (5): 1307–16. doi:10.1128/MCB.22.5.1307-1316.2002. ISSN 0270-7306. PMC 134713. PMID 11839798. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Roy, A L (1993). "Direct role for Myc in transcription initiation mediated by interactions with TFII-I". Nature. ENGLAND. 365 (6444): 359–61. doi:10.1038/365359a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 8377829. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ Xiong, Jingbo (2003). "BRCA1 Inhibition of Telomerase Activity in Cultured Cells". Mol. Cell. Biol. United States. 23 (23): 8668–90. doi:10.1128/MCB.23.23.8668-8690.2003. ISSN 0270-7306. PMC 262673. PMID 14612409. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ Zhou, Chenyi (2003). "Inhibition of human telomerase reverse transcriptase gene expression by BRCA1 in human ovarian cancer cells". Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. United States. 303 (1): 130–6. doi:10.1016/S0006-291X(03)00318-8. ISSN 0006-291X. PMID 12646176. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  14. ↑ Wang, Q (1998). "BRCA1 binds c-Myc and inhibits its transcriptional and transforming activity in cells". Oncogene. ENGLAND. 17 (15): 1939–48. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1202403. ISSN 0950-9232. PMID 9788437. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  15. ↑ Otsuki, Yoshiro (2003). "Guanine nucleotide exchange factor, Tiam1, directly binds to c-Myc and interferes with c-Myc-mediated apoptosis in rat-1 fibroblasts". J. Biol. Chem. United States. 278 (7): 5132–40. doi:10.1074/jbc.M206733200. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 12446731. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Liu, Xiaohui (2003). "c-Myc transformation domain recruits the human STAGA complex and requires TRRAP and GCN5 acetylase activity for transcription activation". J. Biol. Chem. United States. 278 (22): 20405–12. doi:10.1074/jbc.M211795200. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 12660246. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ Guo, Q (1998). "Identification of a large Myc-binding protein that contains RCC1-like repeats". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. UNITED STATES. 95 (16): 9172–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.16.9172. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 21311. PMID 9689053. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  18. ↑ Noguchi, K (1999). "Regulation of c-Myc through phosphorylation at Ser-62 and Ser-71 by c-Jun N-terminal kinase". J. Biol. Chem. UNITED STATES. 274 (46): 32580–7. doi:10.1074/jbc.274.46.32580. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 10551811. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Jin, Zhaohui (2004). "Tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone promotes functional cooperation of Bcl2 and c-Myc through phosphorylation in regulating cell survival and proliferation". J. Biol. Chem. United States. 279 (38): 40209–19. doi:10.1074/jbc.M404056200. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 15210690. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  20. ↑ Brenner, Carmen (2005). "Myc represses transcription through recruitment of DNA methyltransferase corepressor". EMBO J. England. 24 (2): 336–46. doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600509. ISSN 0261-4189. PMC 545804. PMID 15616584. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Feng, Xin-Hua (2002). "Direct interaction of c-Myc with Smad2 and Smad3 to inhibit TGF-beta-mediated induction of the CDK inhibitor p15(Ink4B)". Mol. Cell. United States. 9 (1): 133–43. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(01)00430-0. ISSN 1097-2765. PMID 11804592. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Ewing, Rob M (2007). "Large-scale mapping of human protein–protein interactions by mass spectrometry". Mol. Syst. Biol. England. 3 (1): 89. doi:10.1038/msb4100134. PMC 1847948. PMID 17353931. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 McMahon, S B (2000). "The Essential Cofactor TRRAP Recruits the Histone Acetyltransferase hGCN5 to c-Myc". Mol. Cell. Biol. UNITED STATES. 20 (2): 556–62. doi:10.1128/MCB.20.2.556-562.2000. ISSN 0270-7306. PMC 85131. PMID 10611234. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 McMahon, S B (1998). "The novel ATM-related protein TRRAP is an essential cofactor for the c-Myc and E2F oncoproteins". Cell. UNITED STATES. 94 (3): 363–74. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81479-8. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 9708738. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Cheng, S W (1999). "c-MYC interacts with INI1/hSNF5 and requires the SWI/SNF complex for transactivation function". Nat. Genet. UNITED STATES. 22 (1): 102–5. doi:10.1038/8811. ISSN 1061-4036. PMID 10319872. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Mac Partlin, Mary (2003). "Interactions of the DNA mismatch repair proteins MLH1 and MSH2 with c-MYC and MAX". Oncogene. England. 22 (6): 819–25. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1206252. ISSN 0950-9232. PMID 12584560. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ Blackwood, E M (1991). "Max: a helix-loop-helix zipper protein that forms a sequence-specific DNA-binding complex with Myc". Science. UNITED STATES. 251 (4998): 1211–7. doi:10.1126/science.2006410. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 2006410. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  28. ↑ Lee, Clement M (2002). "JLP: A scaffolding protein that tethers JNK/p38MAPK signaling modules and transcription factors". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. United States. 99 (22): 14189–94. doi:10.1073/pnas.232310199. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 137859. PMID 12391307. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  29. ↑ Billin, A N (1999). "Mlx, a novel Max-like BHLHZip protein that interacts with the Max network of transcription factors". J. Biol. Chem. UNITED STATES. 274 (51): 36344–50. doi:10.1074/jbc.274.51.36344. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 10593926. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  30. ↑ Gupta, K (1998). "Mmip1: a novel leucine zipper protein that reverses the suppressive effects of Mad family members on c-myc". Oncogene. ENGLAND. 16 (9): 1149–59. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1201634. ISSN 0950-9232. PMID 9528857. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  31. ↑ Meroni, G (1997). "Rox, a novel bHLHZip protein expressed in quiescent cells that heterodimerizes with Max, binds a non-canonical E box and acts as a transcriptional repressor". EMBO J. ENGLAND. 16 (10): 2892–906. doi:10.1093/emboj/16.10.2892. ISSN 0261-4189. PMC 1169897. PMID 9184233. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  32. ↑ Nair, Satish K (2003). "X-ray structures of Myc-Max and Mad-Max recognizing DNA. Molecular bases of regulation by proto-oncogenic transcription factors". Cell. United States. 112 (2): 193–205. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(02)01284-9. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 12553908. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  33. ↑ FitzGerald, M J (1999). "Differential effects of the widely expressed dMax splice variant of Max on E-box vs initiator element-mediated regulation by c-Myc". Oncogene. ENGLAND. 18 (15): 2489–98. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1202611. ISSN 0950-9232. PMID 10229200. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  34. ↑ Meroni, G (2000). "Mlx, a new Max-like bHLHZip family member: the center stage of a novel transcription factors regulatory pathway?". Oncogene. ENGLAND. 19 (29): 3266–77. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1203634. ISSN 0950-9232. PMID 10918583. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  35. ↑ Taira, T (1998). "AMY-1, a novel C-MYC binding protein that stimulates transcription activity of C-MYC". Genes Cells. ENGLAND. 3 (8): 549–65. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2443.1998.00206.x. ISSN 1356-9597. PMID 9797456. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  36. ↑ Frank, Scott R (2003). "MYC recruits the TIP60 histone acetyltransferase complex to chromatin". EMBO Rep. England. 4 (6): 575–80. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor861. ISSN 1469-221X. PMC 1319201. PMID 12776177. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  37. ↑ Staller, P (2001). "Repression of p15INK4b expression by Myc through association with Miz-1". Nat. Cell Biol. England. 3 (4): 392–9. doi:10.1038/35070076. ISSN 1465-7392. PMID 11283613. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ Peukert, K (1997). "An alternative pathway for gene regulation by Myc". EMBO J. ENGLAND. 16 (18): 5672–86. doi:10.1093/emboj/16.18.5672. ISSN 0261-4189. PMC 1170199. PMID 9312026. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  39. ↑ Mori, K (1998). "MM-1, a novel c-Myc-associating protein that represses transcriptional activity of c-Myc". J. Biol. Chem. UNITED STATES. 273 (45): 29794–800. doi:10.1074/jbc.273.45.29794. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 9792694. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  40. ↑ Fujioka, Y (2001). "MM-1, a c-Myc-binding protein, is a candidate for a tumor suppressor in leukemia/lymphoma and tongue cancer". J. Biol. Chem. United States. 276 (48): 45137–44. doi:10.1074/jbc.M106127200. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 11567024. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  41. ↑ Gupta, S (1994). "MAP kinase binds to the NH2-terminal activation domain of c-Myc". FEBS Lett. NETHERLANDS. 353 (3): 281–5. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(94)01052-8. ISSN 0014-5793. PMID 7957875. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  42. ↑ Tournier, C (1997). "Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7 is an activator of the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. UNITED STATES. 94 (14): 7337–42. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.14.7337. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 23822. PMID 9207092. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  43. ↑ Gaubatz, S (1995). "Transcriptional activation by Myc is under negative control by the transcription factor AP-2". EMBO J. ENGLAND. 14 (7): 1508–19. ISSN 0261-4189. PMC 398238. PMID 7729426. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  44. ↑ Uramoto, Hidetaka (2002). "p73 Interacts with c-Myc to regulate Y-box-binding protein-1 expression". J. Biol. Chem. United States. 277 (35): 31694–702. doi:10.1074/jbc.M200266200. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 12080043. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  45. ↑ Shrivastava, A (1993). "Inhibition of transcriptional regulator Yin-Yang-1 by association with c-Myc". Science. UNITED STATES. 262 (5141): 1889–92. doi:10.1126/science.8266081. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 8266081. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  46. ↑ Chang TC, Yu D, Lee YS, Wentzel EA, Arking DE, West KM, Dang CV, Thomas-Tikhonenko A, Mendell JT (2008). "Widespread microRNA repression by Myc contributes to tumorigenesis". Nat. Genet. 40 (1): 43–50. doi:10.1038/ng.2007.30. PMC 2628762. PMID 18066065. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  47. ↑ Koscianska E, Baev V, Skreka K, Oikonomaki K, Rusinov V, Tabler M, Kalantidis K (2007). "Prediction and preliminary validation of oncogene regulation by miRNAs". BMC Mol. Biol. 8: 79. doi:10.1186/1471-2199-8-79. PMC 2096627. PMID 17877811.
  48. ↑ Ioannidis P, Mahaira LG, Perez SA, Gritzapis AD, Sotiropoulou PA, Kavalakis GJ, Antsaklis AI, Baxevanis CN, Papamichail M (2005). "CRD-BP/IMP1 expression characterizes cord blood CD34+ stem cells and affects c-myc and IGF-II expression in MCF-7 cancer cells". J. Biol. Chem. 280 (20): 20086–93. doi:10.1074/jbc.M410036200. PMID 15769738. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  49. ↑ de Alboran IM, O'Hagan RC, Gärtner F; et al. (2001). "Analysis of C-MYC function in normal cells via conditional gene-targeted mutation". Immunity. 14 (1): 45–55. doi:10.1016/S1074-7613(01)00088-7. PMID 11163229. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  50. ↑ Nie Z, Hu G, Wei G, Cui K, Yamane A, Resch W, Wang R, Green DR, Tessarollo L, Casellas R, Zhao K, Levens D (2012). "c-Myc is a universal amplifier of expressed genes in lymphocytes and embryonic stem cells". Cell. 151 (1): 68–79. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.08.033. PMID 23021216. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  51. ↑ Kessler JD, Kahle KT, Sun T, Meerbrey KL, Schlabach MR, Schmitt EM, Skinner SO, Xu Q, Li MZ, Hartman ZC, Rao M, Yu P, Dominguez-Vidana R, Liang AC, Solimini NL, Bernardi RJ, Yu B, Hsu T, Golding I, Luo J, Osborne CK, Creighton CJ, Hilsenbeck SG, Schiff R, Shaw CA, Elledge SJ, Westbrook TF (2012). "A SUMOylation-dependent transcriptional subprogram is required for Myc-driven tumorigenesis". Science. 335 (6066): 348–53. doi:10.1126/science.1212728. PMID 22157079. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Further reading

  • Ruf IK, Rhyne PW, Yang H; et al. (2002). "EBV regulates c-MYC, apoptosis, and tumorigenicity in Burkitt's lymphoma". Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 258: 153–60. PMID 11443860.
  • Lüscher B (2001). "Function and regulation of the transcription factors of the Myc/Max/Mad network". Gene. 277 (1–2): 1–14. PMID 11602341.
  • Hoffman B, Amanullah A, Shafarenko M, Liebermann DA (2002). "The proto-oncogene c-myc in hematopoietic development and leukemogenesis". Oncogene. 21 (21): 3414–21. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1205400. PMID 12032779.
  • Pelengaris S, Khan M, Evan G (2002). "c-MYC: more than just a matter of life and death". Nat. Rev. Cancer. 2 (10): 764–76. doi:10.1038/nrc904. PMID 12360279.
  • Nilsson JA, Cleveland JL (2004). "Myc pathways provoking cell suicide and cancer". Oncogene. 22 (56): 9007–21. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1207261. PMID 14663479.
  • Dang CV, O'donnell KA, Juopperi T (2005). "The great MYC escape in tumorigenesis". Cancer Cell. 8 (3): 177–8. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2005.08.005. PMID 16169462.
  • Dang CV, Li F, Lee LA (2007). "Could MYC induction of mitochondrial biogenesis be linked to ROS production and genomic instability?". Cell Cycle. 4 (11): 1465–6. PMID 16205115.
  • Coller HA, Forman JJ, Legesse-Miller A (2007). ""Myc'ed messages": myc induces transcription of E2F1 while inhibiting its translation via a microRNA polycistron". PLoS Genet. 3 (8): e146. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0030146. PMID 17784791.
  • Astrin SM, Laurence J (1992). "Human immunodeficiency virus activates c-myc and Epstein-Barr virus in human B lymphocytes". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 651: 422–32. PMID 1318011.
  • Bernstein PL, Herrick DJ, Prokipcak RD, Ross J (1992). "Control of c-myc mRNA half-life in vitro by a protein capable of binding to a coding region stability determinant". Genes Dev. 6 (4): 642–54. PMID 1559612.
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