Dilated cardiomyopathy causes: Difference between revisions

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{{Dilated cardiomyopathy}}
{{Dilated cardiomyopathy}}
 
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} Sachin Shah, M.D. {{Ochuko}}
{{CMG}}; '''Associate Editor-in-Chief:''' Sachin Shah, M.D.


==Overview==
==Overview==
There are many causes of [[dilated cardiomyopathy]]. The most common cause is [[idiopathic]] in 50% of cases. The next most common cause is [[myocarditis]]  which is responsible for 10% of cases. The high percentage of idiopathic [[dilated cardiomyopathy]] may be related to the difficulty in diagnosing viral [[myocarditis]].  Other common causes include [[substance abuse]], connective tissue disease, [[pregnancy]], [[medications]], [[nutritional deficiencies]], infiltrative diseases and [[toxin]]s.  There are varying degrees of severity of the disease.  Some forms are reversible and some are irreversible; some patients may be completely [[asymptomatic]] and some may require [[Heart transplantation|cardiac transplantation]].


==Causes==
==Causes==
There are several recorded causes for [[dilated cardiomyopathy]]. <ref> Felker GM, Thompson RE, et al. Underlying causes and long-term survival in patients with initially unexplained cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 2000 Apr 13;342(14):1077-84.</ref><ref name="pmid27339497">Japp AG, Gulati A, Cook SA, Cowie MR, Prasad SK (2016) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27339497 The Diagnosis and Evaluation of Dilated Cardiomyopathy.] ''J Am Coll Cardiol'' 67 (25):2996-3010. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.590 DOI:10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.590] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/27339497 27339497]</ref><ref name="pmid31693481">{{cite journal| author=Baris L, Cornette J, Johnson MR, Sliwa K, Roos-Hesselink JW| title=Peripartum cardiomyopathy: disease or syndrome? | journal=Heart | year= 2019 | volume= 105 | issue= 5 | pages= 357-362 | pmid=31693481 | doi=10.1136/heartjnl-2018-314252 | pmc=6613742 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31693481  }}</ref><ref name="pmid28190577">{{cite journal| author=Weintraub RG, Semsarian C, Macdonald P| title=Dilated cardiomyopathy. | journal=Lancet | year= 2017 | volume= 390 | issue= 10092 | pages= 400-414 | pmid=28190577 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31713-5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28190577  }}</ref><ref name="pmid27634407">{{cite journal| author=Favalli V, Serio A, Grasso M, Arbustini E| title=Genetic causes of dilated cardiomyopathy. | journal=Heart | year= 2016 | volume= 102 | issue= 24 | pages= 2004-2014 | pmid=27634407 | doi=10.1136/heartjnl-2015-308190 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27634407  }}</ref>
===Life Threatening Causes===
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
*[[Carbon monoxide poisoning]]


===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
*[[Antiretroviral drugs]]
*[[chemotherapeutic agents|Chemotherapeutic agents (such as Doxorubicin)]]
*[[Connective tissue disease]]
*[[Eosinophilic cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Hemochromatosis]]
*[[HIV infection]]
*[[Hypertensive heart disease]]
*[[Idiopathic]]
*[[Ischemic cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Myocarditis]]
*[[Nutritional deficiency|Nutritional deficiencies (such as thiamine or selenium)]] 
*[[Peripartum cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Sarcoidosis]]
*[[Sleep apnea]]
*[[substance abuse|Substance abuse (alcohol abuse or cocaine abuse)]]
*[[toxins|Toxins (such as cobalt, lead or beryllium)]]


There are many causes and there are varying degrees of severity of the disease. Some forms are reversible and some are irreversible; some patients may be completely asymptoamtic and some may require cardiac transplantation.
===Causes by Organ System===


There are many causes of dilated cardiomyopathy.
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
*[[Idiopathic]]-most common and it accounts for roughly 50% of cases.<ref> Felker GM, Thompson RE, et al. Underlying causes and long-term survival in patients with initially unexplained cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 2000 Apr 13;342(14):1077-84.</ref>
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" |'''Cardiovascular'''
*[[Myocarditis]]-next most common and it accounts for roughly 10% of cases.
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | [[Alstrom syndrome]], [[amyloidosis]], [[Carvajal-Huerta syndrome]], [[coronary artery disease]], [[endocardial fibroelastosis]], [[eosinophilic cardiomyopathy]], [[hemochromatosis]], [[myocarditis|hypersensitivity myocarditis]], [[hypertension]], [[hypertensive heart disease]], [[ischemic cardiomyopathy]], [[ischemic heart disease]], [[Kawasaki disease]], [[myocarditis]], [[myxoma]], [[peripartum cardiomyopathy]], [[rheumatic fever]], [[Salih myopathy]], [[tachycardia]], [[dilated cardiomyopathy|x-linked dilated cardiomyopathy]]
|-
|bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"| '''Chemical/Poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Beryllium]], [[carbon monoxide poisoning]], [[cobalt]], [[heavy metals]], [[lead]], [[mercury]], [[toxins]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Carvajal-Huerta syndrome]], [[dermatomyositis]], familial cutaneous collagenoma, [[scleroderma]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Adriamycin]], [[amphetamines]], [[anthracyclines]], [[antiretroviral drugs]], [[bleomycin]], [[certolizumab pegol]],[[chemotherapeutic agents]], [[chloroquine]], [[clozapine]], [[cyclophosphamide ]], [[didanosine]], [[disopyramide]], [[doxorubicin]], [[epirubicin]], [[idarubicin]], [[imatinib mesylate]], [[lithium ]], [[methysergide]], [[mitoxantrone]], [[paracetamol]], peplomycin, [[phenothiazines]], [[tacrolimus]], [[trastuzumab]], [[zalcitabine]], [[zidovudine]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acromegaly]], [[amyloidosis]], [[Cushing's syndrome]], [[diabetes mellitus]], [[hemochromatosis]], [[hyperparathyroidism]], [[hypoparathyroidism]], [[hypothyroidism]], [[myxedema]], [[pheochromocytoma]], [[pituitary tumor]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Heat stroke]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hemochromatosis]], [[sarcoidosis]], [[Whipple's disease]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Alstrom syndrome]], [[Barth syndrome]], [[Becker muscular dystrophy]], [[desmin-related myopathy]], [[Duchenne's muscular dystrophy]], [[Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, X-linked]], [[Erb dystrophy]], [[Fabry's disease]], familial cutaneous collagenoma, [[Friedreich's ataxia]], [[hemochromatosis]], [[Laing distal myopathy]], [[limb girdle muscular dystrophy]], [[McLeod neuroacanthocytosis syndrome]], [[McLeod phenotype]], [[Naxos disease]], [[Salih myopathy]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hemochromatosis]], [[McLeod neuroacanthocytosis syndrome]], [[McLeod phenotype]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Radiation]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Adenovirus]], [[brucellosis]], [[Chagas disease]], [[Coxsackie virus]], [[cryptococcosis]], [[cytomegalovirus]], [[diphtheria]], [[echovirus]], [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[hepatitis]], [[histoplasmosis]], [[HIV infection]], [[influenza virus]], [[leptospirosis]], [[Loa loa]], [[Lyme disease]], [[myocarditis]], [[parvovirus]], [[psittacosis]], [[rheumatic fever]], [[schistosomiasis]], [[syphillis]], [[toxoplasmosis]], [[trichinosis]], [[trypanosomiasis]], [[typhoid fever]], [[varicella]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Becker muscular dystrophy]], [[desmin-related myopathy]], [[Duchenne's muscular dystrophy]], [[Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, X-linked]], [[Erb dystrophy]], [[hemochromatosis]], [[Laing distal myopathy]], [[limb girdle muscular dystrophy]], [[myotonic dystrophy]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Salih myopathy]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Friedreich's ataxia]], [[giant cell arteritis]], [[Refsum's disease]], [[sleep apnea]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional/Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Beriberi]], [[carnitine]], [[Fabry's disease]], [[glycogenosis type 2b]], [[hypocalcemia]], [[hypophosphatemia]], [[isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency]], [[niacin]], [[nutritional deficiencies]], [[pellagra]], [[Refsum's disease]], [[selenium deficiency]], [[thiamine]], [[triosephosphate isomerase deficiency]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Childbirth]], [[pregnancy]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Myxoma]], [[pheochromocytoma]], [[pituitary tumor]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Giant cell arteritis]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose/Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Alcohol abuse]], [[cocaine]], [[ethanol]], [[substance abuse]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Sarcoidosis]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal/Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Uremia]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Amyloidosis]], [[connective tissue disease]], [[dermatomyositis]], [[giant cell arteritis]], [[rheumatic fever]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[sarcoidosis]], [[scleroderma]], [[serum sickness]], [[systemic lupus erythematosis]], [[transplant rejection]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Electric shock]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Heat stroke]], [[hypothermia ]], [[idiopathic]]
|-
|}
 
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
{{col-begin|width=80%}}
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Acromegaly]]
*[[Adenovirus]]
*[[Adriamycin]]
*[[Alcohol abuse]]
*[[Alström syndrome]]
*[[Amphetamines]]
*[[Amyloidosis]]
*[[Anthracyclines]]
*[[Antiretroviral drugs]]
*[[Barth syndrome]]
*[[Becker muscular dystrophy]]
*[[Beriberi]]
*[[Beryllium]]
*[[Bleomycin]]
*[[Brucellosis]]
*[[Carbon monoxide poisoning]]
*[[Carnitine]]
*[[Carvajal-Huerta syndrome]]
*[[Certolizumab pegol]]
*[[Chagas disease]]
*[[Chemotherapeutic agents]]
*[[Childbirth]]
*[[Chloroquine]]
*[[Clozapine]]
*[[Cobalt]]
*[[Cocaine]]
*[[Connective tissue disease]]
*[[Coronary artery disease]]
*[[Coxsackie virus]]
*[[Cryptococcosis]]
*[[Cushing's syndrome]]
*[[Cyclophosphamide ]]
*[[Cytomegalovirus]]
*[[Dermatomyositis]]
*[[Desmin-related myopathy]]
*[[Diabetes mellitus]]
*[[Didanosine]]
*[[Diphtheria]]
*[[Disopyramide]]
*[[Doxorubicin]]
*[[Duchenne's muscular dystrophy]]
*[[Echovirus]]
*[[Electric shock]]
*[[Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, X-linked]]
*[[Endocardial fibroelastosis]]
*[[Epirubicin]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Epstein-Barr virus]]
*[[Erb dystrophy]]
*[[Ethanol]]
*[[Fabry's disease]]
*Familial cutaneous collagenoma
*[[Friedreich's ataxia]]
*[[Giant cell arteritis]]
*[[Glycogenosis type 2b]]
*[[Heat stroke]]
*[[Heavy metals]]
*[[Hemochromatosis]]
*[[Hepatitis]]
*[[Histoplasmosis]]
*[[HIV infection]]
*[[Hyperparathyroidism]]
*[[myocarditis|Hypersensitivity myocarditis]]
*[[Hypertension]]
*[[Hypertensive heart disease]]
*[[Hypocalcemia]]
*[[Hypoparathyroidism]]
*[[Hypophosphatemia]]
*[[Hypothermia ]]
*[[Hypothyroidism]]
*[[Idarubicin]]
*[[Idiopathic]]
*[[Imatinib mesylate]]
*[[Influenza virus]]
*[[Ischemic heart disease]]
*[[Ischemic cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Ischemic cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Infiltrative disease]]
*[[Isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency]]
*[[Hypertensive heart disease]]
*[[Kawasaki disease]]
*[[Substance abuse]] (i.e. [[alcohol]] abuse or [[cocaine]] abuse)
*[[Laing distal myopathy]]
*[[Connective tissue disease]]
*[[Lead]]
*[[Leptospirosis]]
*[[Limb girdle muscular dystrophy]]
*[[Lithium ]]
*[[Loa loa]]
*[[Lyme disease]]
*[[McLeod neuroacanthocytosis syndrome]]
*[[McLeod phenotype]]
*[[Mercury]]
*[[Methysergide]]
*[[Mitoxantrone]]
*[[Myocarditis]]
*[[Myotonic dystrophy]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Myxedema]]
*[[Myxoma]]
*[[Naxos disease]]
*[[Niacin]]
*[[Nutritional deficiencies]]
*[[Paracetamol]]
*[[Parvovirus]]
*[[Pellagra]]
*Peplomycin
*[[Peripartum cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Peripartum cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Drugs]] (such as the chemotherapeutic agent [[doxarubacin]])
*[[Phenothiazines]]
*[[HIV infection]]
*[[Pheochromocytoma]]
*[[Antiretroviral drugs]]
*[[Pituitary tumor]]
*[[Toxins]] (such as [[cobalt]], [[lead]] or [[beryllium]])
*[[Pregnancy]]
*Nutritional deficiencies (such as [[thiamine]] or [[selenium]]). 
*[[Psittacosis]]
 
*[[Radiation]]
The high percentage of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy may be related to the difficulty in diagnosing viral myocarditis.
*[[Refsum's disease]]
*[[Rheumatic fever]]
*[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]
*[[Salih myopathy]]
*[[Sarcoidosis]]
*[[Scleroderma]]
*[[Selenium deficiency]]
*[[Serum sickness]]
*[[Schistosomiasis]]
*[[Sleep apnea]]
*[[Substance abuse]]
*[[Syphilis]]
*[[Systemic lupus erythematosis]]
*[[Tachycardia]]
*[[Tacrolimus]]
*[[Thiamine]]  
*[[Toxins]]  
*[[Toxoplasmosis]]
*[[Transplant rejection]]  
*[[Trastuzumab]]
*[[Trichinosis]]  
*[[Triosephosphate isomerase deficiency]]
*[[Trypanosomiasis]]
*[[Typhoid fever]]
*[[Uremia]]
*[[Varicella]]
*[[Whipple's disease]]
*[[dilated cardiomyopathy|X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Zalcitabine]]
*[[Zidovudine]]
{{col-end}}


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
[[Category:Crowdiagnosis]]
[[Category:Disease]]
[[Category:Cardiomyopathy]]
[[Category:Cardiology]]
[[Category:Up-To-Date cardiology]]
[[Category:Up-To-Date]]
{{WH}}
{{WS}}

Latest revision as of 16:34, 30 December 2019

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sachin Shah, M.D. Ogheneochuko Ajari, MB.BS, MS [2]

Overview

There are many causes of dilated cardiomyopathy. The most common cause is idiopathic in 50% of cases. The next most common cause is myocarditis which is responsible for 10% of cases. The high percentage of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy may be related to the difficulty in diagnosing viral myocarditis. Other common causes include substance abuse, connective tissue disease, pregnancy, medications, nutritional deficiencies, infiltrative diseases and toxins. There are varying degrees of severity of the disease. Some forms are reversible and some are irreversible; some patients may be completely asymptomatic and some may require cardiac transplantation.

Causes

There are several recorded causes for dilated cardiomyopathy. [1][2][3][4][5]

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.

Common Causes

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Alstrom syndrome, amyloidosis, Carvajal-Huerta syndrome, coronary artery disease, endocardial fibroelastosis, eosinophilic cardiomyopathy, hemochromatosis, hypersensitivity myocarditis, hypertension, hypertensive heart disease, ischemic cardiomyopathy, ischemic heart disease, Kawasaki disease, myocarditis, myxoma, peripartum cardiomyopathy, rheumatic fever, Salih myopathy, tachycardia, x-linked dilated cardiomyopathy
Chemical/Poisoning Beryllium, carbon monoxide poisoning, cobalt, heavy metals, lead, mercury, toxins
Dental No underlying causes
Dermatologic Carvajal-Huerta syndrome, dermatomyositis, familial cutaneous collagenoma, scleroderma
Drug Side Effect Adriamycin, amphetamines, anthracyclines, antiretroviral drugs, bleomycin, certolizumab pegol,chemotherapeutic agents, chloroquine, clozapine, cyclophosphamide , didanosine, disopyramide, doxorubicin, epirubicin, idarubicin, imatinib mesylate, lithium , methysergide, mitoxantrone, paracetamol, peplomycin, phenothiazines, tacrolimus, trastuzumab, zalcitabine, zidovudine
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Acromegaly, amyloidosis, Cushing's syndrome, diabetes mellitus, hemochromatosis, hyperparathyroidism, hypoparathyroidism, hypothyroidism, myxedema, pheochromocytoma, pituitary tumor
Environmental Heat stroke
Gastroenterologic Hemochromatosis, sarcoidosis, Whipple's disease
Genetic Alstrom syndrome, Barth syndrome, Becker muscular dystrophy, desmin-related myopathy, Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, X-linked, Erb dystrophy, Fabry's disease, familial cutaneous collagenoma, Friedreich's ataxia, hemochromatosis, Laing distal myopathy, limb girdle muscular dystrophy, McLeod neuroacanthocytosis syndrome, McLeod phenotype, Naxos disease, Salih myopathy
Hematologic Hemochromatosis, McLeod neuroacanthocytosis syndrome, McLeod phenotype
Iatrogenic Radiation
Infectious Disease Adenovirus, brucellosis, Chagas disease, Coxsackie virus, cryptococcosis, cytomegalovirus, diphtheria, echovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, hepatitis, histoplasmosis, HIV infection, influenza virus, leptospirosis, Loa loa, Lyme disease, myocarditis, parvovirus, psittacosis, rheumatic fever, schistosomiasis, syphillis, toxoplasmosis, trichinosis, trypanosomiasis, typhoid fever, varicella
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic Becker muscular dystrophy, desmin-related myopathy, Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, X-linked, Erb dystrophy, hemochromatosis, Laing distal myopathy, limb girdle muscular dystrophy, myotonic dystrophy, rheumatoid arthritis, Salih myopathy
Neurologic Friedreich's ataxia, giant cell arteritis, Refsum's disease, sleep apnea
Nutritional/Metabolic Beriberi, carnitine, Fabry's disease, glycogenosis type 2b, hypocalcemia, hypophosphatemia, isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, niacin, nutritional deficiencies, pellagra, Refsum's disease, selenium deficiency, thiamine, triosephosphate isomerase deficiency
Obstetric/Gynecologic Childbirth, pregnancy
Oncologic Myxoma, pheochromocytoma, pituitary tumor
Ophthalmologic Giant cell arteritis
Overdose/Toxicity Alcohol abuse, cocaine, ethanol, substance abuse
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary Sarcoidosis
Renal/Electrolyte Uremia
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy Amyloidosis, connective tissue disease, dermatomyositis, giant cell arteritis, rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoidosis, scleroderma, serum sickness, systemic lupus erythematosis, transplant rejection
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma Electric shock
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Heat stroke, hypothermia , idiopathic

Causes in Alphabetical Order

References

  1. ↑ Felker GM, Thompson RE, et al. Underlying causes and long-term survival in patients with initially unexplained cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 2000 Apr 13;342(14):1077-84.
  2. ↑ Japp AG, Gulati A, Cook SA, Cowie MR, Prasad SK (2016) The Diagnosis and Evaluation of Dilated Cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 67 (25):2996-3010. DOI:10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.590 PMID: 27339497
  3. ↑ Baris L, Cornette J, Johnson MR, Sliwa K, Roos-Hesselink JW (2019). "Peripartum cardiomyopathy: disease or syndrome?". Heart. 105 (5): 357–362. doi:10.1136/heartjnl-2018-314252. PMC 6613742 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 31693481.
  4. ↑ Weintraub RG, Semsarian C, Macdonald P (2017). "Dilated cardiomyopathy". Lancet. 390 (10092): 400–414. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31713-5. PMID 28190577.
  5. ↑ Favalli V, Serio A, Grasso M, Arbustini E (2016). "Genetic causes of dilated cardiomyopathy". Heart. 102 (24): 2004–2014. doi:10.1136/heartjnl-2015-308190. PMID 27634407.

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