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__NOTOC__
{{Constipation}}
{{Constipation}}
{{CMG}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{M.P}}, {{EG}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
Constipation in adults may be due to side effects of [[medications]], such as [[antispasmodics]], [[anticholinergics]], [[analgesics]]; or may be associated with systemic disorders, such as [[diabetes mellitus]] and [[hypothyroidism]].  [[Idiopathic]] constipation should be considered once the secondary causes are ruled out and it may be associated with normal or slow colonic transit, dysfunction in defecation, or both. Constipation in childhood often resolves with age after proper guidance regarding [[diet]], [[toilet training]], and toileting behaviors.
==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life Threatening Causes===
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated. These conditions include the followings:<ref name="pmid10631634">{{cite journal| author=Hennessey A, Robertson NP, Swingler R, Compston DA| title=Urinary, faecal and sexual dysfunction in patients with multiple sclerosis. | journal=J Neurol | year= 1999 | volume= 246 | issue= 11 | pages= 1027-32 | pmid=10631634 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10631634  }} </ref>
*[[Atropine|Atropine poisoning]]
*[[Hypokalemia]]
*[[Lead poisoning]]
*[[opium|Opium poisoning]]
*[[dehydration|Severe dehydration]]
*[[Spinal cord injury]]
*[[Acute mesenteric ischemia|Superior mesenteric artery occlusion]]
*[[Volvulus]]
===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
The main causes of constipation include:
Common causes of constipation include:<ref name="pmid9932850">{{cite journal| author=Roma E, Adamidis D, Nikolara R, Constantopoulos A, Messaritakis J| title=Diet and chronic constipation in children: the role of fiber. | journal=J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr | year= 1999 | volume= 28 | issue= 2 | pages= 169-74 | pmid=9932850 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9932850  }} </ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Caldarella MP, Milano A, Laterza F, ''et al'' |title=Visceral sensitivity and symptoms in patients with constipation- or diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): effect of a low-fat intraduodenal infusion |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=383–9 |year=2005 |pmid=15667496 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.40100.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.helpwithsmoking.com/nicotine-withdrawal.php#constipation |title=Nicotine withdrawal symptoms:Constipation |accessdate=2007-06-29 |date=2005 |publisher=helpwithsmoking.com }}</ref><ref name="pmid16566021">{{cite journal| author=Langston JW| title=The Parkinson's complex: parkinsonism is just the tip of the iceberg. | journal=Ann Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 59 | issue= 4 | pages= 591-6 | pmid=16566021 | doi=10.1002/ana.20834 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16566021  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10353954">{{cite journal| author=Stadtler AC, Gorski PA, Brazelton TB| title=Toilet training methods, clinical interventions, and recommendations. American Academy of Pediatrics. | journal=Pediatrics | year= 1999 | volume= 103 | issue= 6 Pt 2 | pages= 1359-68 | pmid=10353954 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10353954  }} </ref>
* '''Hardening of the feces'''
* '''Hardening of the feces'''
** Improper [[mastication]] (chewing) of food
** Improper [[mastication]]
** Insufficient intake of [[dietary fiber]]
** Insufficient intake of [[dietary fiber]]
** [[Dehydration]] from any cause or inadequate fluid intake
** [[Dehydration]]
** Medication, e.g. [[diuretic]]s and those containing [[iron]], [[calcium]], [[aluminium]]
** Medications ([[aluminium]], [[calcium]], [[diuretic]], [[iron]])
* '''Paralysis or slowed transit, where [[Peristalsis|peristaltic action]] is diminished or absent, so that feces are not moved along'''
* '''Paralysis or slowed transit'''
** [[Hypothyroidism]] (slow-acting [[thyroid gland]])
** [[Hypothyroidism]]  
** [[Hypokalemia]]
** [[Hypokalemia]]
** Injured [[Anus|anal sphincter]] (patulous [[anus]])
** Injured [[Anus|anal sphincter]] (patulous [[anus]])
** Medications, such as [[loperamide]], [[opioid]]s (e.g. [[codeine]] & [[morphine]]) and certain [[tricyclic antidepressant]]s
** Medications ([[loperamide]], [[codeine]], [[morphine]] and certain [[tricyclic antidepressants]])
** Severe illness due to other causes
** Severe illness due to other causes
** Acute [[porphyria]] (a rare inherited condition)
** [[Acute intermittent porphyria]]
** [[Lead poisoning]]
** [[Lead poisoning]]
* '''Dyschezia (usually the result of suppressing defecation)'''
* '''Dyschezia (usually the result of suppressing defecation)'''
* '''Constriction, where part of the [[intestine]] or [[rectum]] is narrowed or blocked, not allowing feces to pass'''
* '''Constriction, where part of the [[intestine]] or [[rectum]] is narrowed or blocked'''
** [[Stenosis]] (Strictures)
** [[Stenosis]]  
** [[Diverticula]]
** [[Diverticulosis]]
** [[Tumor]]s, either of the bowel or surrounding tissues
** [[Pelvic masses]]
** Retained [[foreign body]] or a [[bezoar]]
** Retained [[foreign body]] or a [[bezoar]]
* '''[[Psychosomatic]] constipation, based on anxiety or unfamiliarity with surroundings.'''
* '''Psychosomatic constipation'''
** [[Functional constipation]]
** [[Functional constipation]]
** Constipation-predominant [[irritable bowel syndrome]], characterized by a combination of constipation and abdominal discomfort and/or pain<ref>{{cite journal |author=Caldarella MP, Milano A, Laterza F, ''et al'' |title=Visceral sensitivity and symptoms in patients with constipation- or diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): effect of a low-fat intraduodenal infusion |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=383–9 |year=2005 |pmid=15667496 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.40100.x}}</ref>
** [[Irritable bowel syndrome]]
* '''[[Smoking cessation]]''' ([[tobacco smoking]] has a [[laxative]] effect)<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.helpwithsmoking.com/nicotine-withdrawal.php#constipation |title=Nicotine withdrawal symptoms:Constipation |accessdate=2007-06-29 |date=2005 |publisher=helpwithsmoking.com }}</ref>
* [[Smoking cessation]]
* '''Abdominal surgery, other types of surgery, childbirth'''
* [[Abdominal surgery]]
* [[Childbirth]]
===Less Common Causes===
Less common causes of constipation include:<ref name="pmid12826635">{{cite journal| author=Richardson PG, Barlogie B, Berenson J, Singhal S, Jagannath S, Irwin D et al.| title=A phase 2 study of bortezomib in relapsed, refractory myeloma. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2003 | volume= 348 | issue= 26 | pages= 2609-17 | pmid=12826635 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030288 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12826635  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15188181">{{cite journal| author=Bookman ID, Redston MS, Greenberg GR| title=Successful treatment of cap polyposis with infliximab. | journal=Gastroenterology | year= 2004 | volume= 126 | issue= 7 | pages= 1868-71 | pmid=15188181 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15188181  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22357716">{{cite journal| author=Figueroa JJ, Dyck PJ, Laughlin RS, Mercado JA, Massie R, Sandroni P et al.| title=Autonomic dysfunction in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy. | journal=Neurology | year= 2012 | volume= 78 | issue= 10 | pages= 702-8 | pmid=22357716 | doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182494d66 | pmc=PMC3306161 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22357716  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15880314">{{cite journal| author=Stanghellini V, Cogliandro RF, De Giorgio R, Barbara G, Morselli-Labate AM, Cogliandro L et al.| title=Natural history of chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction in adults: a single center study. | journal=Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol | year= 2005 | volume= 3 | issue= 5 | pages= 449-58 | pmid=15880314 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15880314  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21605813">{{cite journal| author=Kárpáti S| title=An exception within the group of autoimmune blistering diseases: dermatitis herpetiformis, the gluten-sensitive dermopathy. | journal=Dermatol Clin | year= 2011 | volume= 29 | issue= 3 | pages= 463-8, x | pmid=21605813 | doi=10.1016/j.det.2011.03.019 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21605813  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11074238">{{cite journal| author=Kühnel A, Gross U, Doss MO| title=Hereditary coproporphyria in Germany: clinical-biochemical studies in 53 patients. | journal=Clin Biochem | year= 2000 | volume= 33 | issue= 6 | pages= 465-73 | pmid=11074238 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11074238  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19608677">{{cite journal| author=Ritchie D, Piekarz RL, Blombery P, Karai LJ, Pittaluga S, Jaffe ES et al.| title=Reactivation of DNA viruses in association with histone deacetylase inhibitor therapy: a case series report. | journal=Haematologica | year= 2009 | volume= 94 | issue= 11 | pages= 1618-22 | pmid=19608677 | doi=10.3324/haematol.2009.008607 | pmc=PMC2770976 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19608677  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9818012">{{cite journal| author=Levi N, Schroeder TV| title=Isolated iliac artery aneurysms. | journal=Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg | year= 1998 | volume= 16 | issue= 4 | pages= 342-4 | pmid=9818012 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9818012  }} </ref><ref name="pmid14597985">{{cite journal| author=Favier R, Jondeau K, Boutard P, Grossfeld P, Reinert P, Jones C et al.| title=Paris-Trousseau syndrome : clinical, hematological, molecular data of ten new cases. | journal=Thromb Haemost | year= 2003 | volume= 90 | issue= 5 | pages= 893-7 | pmid=14597985 | doi=10.1267/THRO03050893 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14597985  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9443463">{{cite journal| author=O'Suilleabhain P, Low PA, Lennon VA| title=Autonomic dysfunction in the Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome: serologic and clinical correlates. | journal=Neurology | year= 1998 | volume= 50 | issue= 1 | pages= 88-93 | pmid=9443463 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9443463  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8923126">{{cite journal| author=Lopez-Ibor J, Guelfi JD, Pletan Y, Tournoux A, Prost JF| title=Milnacipran and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in major depression. | journal=Int Clin Psychopharmacol | year= 1996 | volume= 11 Suppl 4 | issue=  | pages= 41-6 | pmid=8923126 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8923126  }} </ref><ref name="pmid1473414">{{cite journal| author=Jetmore AB, Timmcke AE, Gathright JB, Hicks TC, Ray JE, Baker JW| title=Ogilvie's syndrome: colonoscopic decompression and analysis of predisposing factors. | journal=Dis Colon Rectum | year= 1992 | volume= 35 | issue= 12 | pages= 1135-42 | pmid=1473414 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1473414  }} </ref><ref name="pmid1594338">{{cite journal| author=Partin JC, Hamill SK, Fischel JE, Partin JS| title=Painful defecation and fecal soiling in children. | journal=Pediatrics | year= 1992 | volume= 89 | issue= 6 Pt 1 | pages= 1007-9 | pmid=1594338 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1594338  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3777869">{{cite journal| author=Margulies A, Metman EH, Girard JJ, Dorval ED, Bertrand J| title=[Severe constipation indicative of pseudohypoparathyroidism and resolved after normalization of the blood calcium]. | journal=Ann Gastroenterol Hepatol (Paris) | year= 1986 | volume= 22 | issue= 5 | pages= 271-2 | pmid=3777869 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3777869  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22830463">{{cite journal| author=Euvrard S, Morelon E, Rostaing L, Goffin E, Brocard A, Tromme I et al.| title=Sirolimus and secondary skin-cancer prevention in kidney transplantation. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2012 | volume= 367 | issue= 4 | pages= 329-39 | pmid=22830463 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1204166 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22830463  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20448107">{{cite journal| author=Waage A, Gimsing P, Fayers P, Abildgaard N, Ahlberg L, Björkstrand B et al.| title=Melphalan and prednisone plus thalidomide or placebo in elderly patients with multiple myeloma. | journal=Blood | year= 2010 | volume= 116 | issue= 9 | pages= 1405-12 | pmid=20448107 | doi=10.1182/blood-2009-08-237974 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20448107  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12432430">{{cite journal| author=Sforzini C, Milani D, Fossali E, Barbato A, Grumieri G, Bianchetti MG et al.| title=Renal tract ultrasonography and calcium homeostasis in Williams-Beuren syndrome. | journal=Pediatr Nephrol | year= 2002 | volume= 17 | issue= 11 | pages= 899-902 | pmid=12432430 | doi=10.1007/s00467-002-0889-z | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12432430  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23522863">{{cite journal| author=Peeters B, Noens I, Philips EM, Kuppens S, Benninga MA| title=Autism spectrum disorders in children with functional defecation disorders. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 2013 | volume= 163 | issue= 3 | pages= 873-8 | pmid=23522863 | doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.02.028 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23522863  }} </ref><ref name="pmid18998743">{{cite journal| author=Yang LP, Plosker GL| title=Desvenlafaxine extended release. | journal=CNS Drugs | year= 2008 | volume= 22 | issue= 12 | pages= 1061-9 | pmid=18998743 | doi=10.2165/0023210-200822120-00008 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18998743  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17826933">{{cite journal| author=Kikuta S, Asakage T, Nakao K, Sugasawa M, Kubota A| title=The aggravating factors of hyperammonemia related to 5-fluorouracil infusion--a report of two cases. | journal=Auris Nasus Larynx | year= 2008 | volume= 35 | issue= 2 | pages= 295-9 | pmid=17826933 | doi=10.1016/j.anl.2007.04.012 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17826933  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3540519">{{cite journal| author=Legha SS| title=Vincristine neurotoxicity. Pathophysiology and management. | journal=Med Toxicol | year= 1986 | volume= 1 | issue= 6 | pages= 421-7 | pmid=3540519 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3540519  }} </ref>
*[[Acute intermittent porphyria]]
*[[Adjustable gastric band]]
*[[Anal atresia]]
*[[Anal carcinoma]]
*[[Autism]]
*[[Autonomic neuropathy]]
*[[Bortezomib]]
*[[polyposis|Cap polyposis]]
*[[Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy]]
*[[Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction]]
*[[Dermatitis herpetiformis]]
*[[Desvanlafaxine]]
*[[Diverticulitis natural history, complications and prognosis|Diverticular stricture]],
*[[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis|Eosinophilic colitis]]
*[[Fluorouracil]]
*[[Fructose malabsorption]]
*[[Glucagonoma]]
*[[Hereditary coproporphyria]]
*[[vorinostat|Histone deacetylase inhibitors]]
*[[Iliac artery aneurysm]]
*[[bowel obstruction|Intestinal pseduoobstruction]]
*[[Janumet]] ([[sitagliptin]] and [[metformin]])
*[[Jacobsen syndrome]]
*[[Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome]]
*[[Milnacipran hydrochloride]]
*[[Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN 2b)]]
*[[Occult spinal dysraphism sequence]]
*[[Ogilvie's syndrome]]
*[[defecation|Painful defecation]]
*[[Pseudohypoparathyroidism]]
*[[Sirolimus]]
*[[Thalidomide]]
*[[Vincristine]]
*[[Williams-Beuren syndrome]]
 
===Causes by Organ System===
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" | '''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | [[Iliac artery aneurysm]], [[Acute mesenteric ischemia|Superior mesenteric artery occlusion]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Atropine|Atropine poisoning]], [[Lead poisoning]], [[opium|Opium poisoning]].
 
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Dermatitis herpetiformis]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[5-HT3 antagonist]],
[[5-hydroxytryptophan]],
[[Acamprosate]],
[[Acebutolol]],
[[Acetaminophen]],
[[Aldesleukin]],
[[Alendronate]],
[[Alfentanil]],
[[Alfuzosin]],
[[Alosetron]],
[[Alprazolam]],
[[Aluminium hydroxide]],
[[Amiodarone]],
[[Amitriptyline]],
[[Amlodipine]],
[[Amobarbital]],
[[Anagrelide]],
[[Anastrozole]],
[[Aprepitant]],
[[Aripiprazole]],
[[Atorvastatin]],
[[Atovaquone]],
[[Atropine]],
[[Auranofin]],
[[Axitinib]],
[[Azacitidine]]
[[Barium sulfate]],
[[Basiliximab]],
[[Benzatropine]],
[[Benzonatate]],
[[Bepridil]],
[[Beta blockers]],
[[Bezafibrate]],
[[Bicalutamide]],
[[Bile acid sequestrant]],
[[Bortezomib]],
[[Bromocriptine]],
[[Buspirone]],
[[Busulfan]],
[[Butabarbital]],
[[Butorphanol]],
[[Calcitriol]],
[[Calcium carbonate]],
[[Capecitabine]],
[[Caspofungin acetate]],
[[Carbamazepine]],
[[Carbidopa]],
[[Carboplatin]],
[[Carfilzomib]],
[[Carteolol]],
[[Cerivastatin]],
[[Cetuximab]],
[[Chlordiazepoxide]],
[[Chloropyramine]],
[[Chlorpromazine]],
[[Chlorpropamide]],
[[Cholestyramine]],
[[Cidofovir]],
[[Cimetidine]],
[[Cisapride]],
[[Citalopram]],
[[Cladribine]],
[[Clobazam]],
[[Clofarabine]],
[[Clomipramine]],
[[Clonazepam]],
[[Clonidine]],
[[Clorazepate]],
[[Clozapine]],
[[Codeine]],
[[Colesevelam]],
[[Colestipol]],
[[Colofac]],
[[Crizotinib]],
[[Cyclizine]],
[[Cyclobenzaprine]],
[[Cytarabine liposome]]
[[Daptomycin]],
[[Darbepoetin alfa]],
[[Darifenacin]],
[[Darunavir]],
[[Desipramine]],
[[Desvenlafaxine]],
[[Dextroamphetamine]],
[[Dextropropoxyphene]],
[[Diacetyldihydromorphine]],
[[Diazepam]],
[[Dicyclomine]],
[[Diethylcathinone]],
[[Diflunisal]],
[[Dihydroetorphine]],
[[Diltiazem]],
[[Dimenhydrinate]],
[[Diphenhydramine]],
[[Disopyramide]],
[[Diuretic]],
[[Dolasetron]],
[[Dolasetron]],
[[Doripenem]],
[[Dosulepin hydrochloride]],
[[Doxepin]],
[[Droperidol]],
[[Duloxetine]],
[[Efavirenz]],
[[Enfuvirtide]],
[[Enzalutamide]],
[[Epoetin alfa]],
[[Eribulin]],
[[Esomeprazole]],
[[Estazolam]],
[[Estradiol]],
[[Ethcathinone]],
[[Ethosuximide]],
[[Ethylmorphine]],
[[Etodolac]],
[[Etoposide]],
[[Everolimus]],
[[Famotidine]],
[[Felbamate]],
[[Felodipine]],
[[Fenofibrate]],
[[Fenoprofen]],
[[Fentanyl]],
[[Ferrous sulfate]],
[[Fesoterodine]],
[[Fludarabine phosphate]],
[[Fluorouracil]],
[[Fluoxetine]],
[[Fluphenazine]],
[[Flurazepam]],
[[Flurbiprofen]],
[[Fluvoxamine]],
[[Fulvestrant]],
[[Furosemide]],
[[Gabapentin]],
[[Ganciclovir]],
[[Gatifloxacin]],
[[Gemcitabine]],
[[Gemfibrozil]],
[[Glipizide]],
[[Glycopyrrolate]],
[[Granisetron]],
[[Guanethidine]],
[[Guanfacine]],
[[H2 antagonist]],
[[Haloperidol]],
[[Hexamethonium]],
[[vorinostat|Histone deacetylase inhibitors]],
[[Hydralazine]],
[[Hydrocodone]],
[[Hydrocodone bitartrate and Homatropine methylbromide]],
[[Hydroxyurea]],
[[Hydroxyzine]],
[[Hyoscyamine]],
[[Hydrochlorothiazide]],
[[Ibandronate]],
[[Imatinib]],
[[Imipramine]],
[[Indomethacin]],
[[Insulin lispro]],
[[Interferon beta-1b]],
[[Ipratropium]],
[[Irinotecan|Irinotecan hydrochloride]],
[[Iron supplements]],
[[Isocarboxazid]],
[[Isradipine]],
[[Itraconazole]],
[[Ivermectin]],
[[Kaolin]],
[[Ketorolac tromethamine]],
[[Lacidipine]],
[[Lamivudine]],
[[Lamotrigine]],
[[Lansoprazole]],
[[Lanthanum]],
[[Leflunomide]],
[[Lenalidomide]],
[[Letrozole]],
[[Leuprolide]],
[[Levalbuterol]],
[[Levetiracetam]],
[[Levodopa]],
[[Levomethadyl]],
[[Levorphanol]],
[[Linezolid]],
[[Lofepramine]],
[[Lomotil]],
[[Lorcaserin]],
[[Loperamide]],
[[Loprazolam]],
[[Lorazepam]],
[[Lovastatin]],
[[Lovaza]],
[[Loxapine]],
[[Magaldrate]],
[[Mebendazole]],
[[Meclizine]],
[[Meclofenamate]],
[[Mefenamic acid]],
[[Meperidine]],
[[Meropenem]],
[[Mesalamine]],
[[Mesna]],
[[Mesoridazine]],
[[Metformin]],
[[Methadone]],
[[Methsuximide]],
[[Methyprylon]],
[[Metoprolol]],
[[Mifepristone]],
[[Milnacipran hydrochloride]],
[[Misoprostol]],
[[Modafinil]],
[[Morphine]],
[[Motofen]],
[[Nabumetone]],
[[Naproxen sodium]],
[[Nateglinide]],
[[Nefazodone]],
[[Netupitant and palonosetron]],
[[Nicardipine]],
[[Nifedipine]],
[[Nilotinib]],
[[Nilutamide]],
[[Nimodipine]],
[[Nisoldipine]],
[[Nizatidine]],
[[Nortriptyline]],
[[Olanzapine]],
[[Omeprazole]],
[[Ondansetron]],
[[Oxaliplatin]],
[[Oxazepam]],
[[Oxcarbazepine]],
[[Oxybutynin]],
[[Oxycodone]],
[[Palonosetron]],
[[Pamidronate]],
[[Pancrelipase]],
[[Paroxetine]],
[[Peginterferon alfa-2b]],
[[Pemetrexed]],
[[Pentamidine Isethionate]],
[[Pergolide]],
[[Perphenazine]],
[[Pethidine]],
[[Phenelzine]],
[[Phentermine]],
[[Phenytoin]],
[[Pholcodine]],
[[Pimozide]],
[[Piperacillin sodium]],
[[Piroxicam]],
[[Posaconazole]],
[[Pramipexole]],
[[Prazepam]],
[[Prazosin]],
[[Prednisolone]],
[[Pregabalin]],
[[Procarbazine]],
[[Prochlorperazine]],
[[Procyclidine]],
[[Progesterone]],
[[Promethazine]],
[[Propafenone]],
[[Propantheline]],
[[Propoxyphene]],
[[Propranolol]],
[[Protriptyline]],
[[Quetiapine]],
[[Rabeprazole]],
[[Ranitidine]],
[[Ranolazine]],
[[Rasagiline]],
[[Rasburicase]],
[[Reboxetine]],
[[Repaglinide]],
[[Ribavirin]],
[[Rilmenidine]],
[[Risperidone]],
[[Rivastigmine]],
[[Ropinirole]],
[[Rosuvastatin]],
[[Sacrosidase]],
[[Saquinavir]],
[[Scopolamine]],
[[Scopolamine]],
[[Secobarbital]],
[[Selegiline]],
[[Sertraline]],
[[Sevelamer]],
[[Sibutramine]],
[[Siltuximab]],
[[Simethicone]],
[[Simvastatin]],
[[Sirolimus]],
[[Sitaxsentan]],
[[Sorafenib]],
[[Sotalol]],
[[Sucralfate]],
[[Sufentanil]],
[[Sulindac]],
[[Sunitinib]],
[[Suxamethonium chloride]],
[[Tacrolimus]],
[[Tamoxifen]],
[[Tapentadol]],
[[Tegaserod]],
[[Temazepam]],
[[Temozolomide]],
[[Terazosin]],
[[Teriparatide]],
[[Tetraferric tricitrate decahydrate]],
[[Thalidomide]],
[[Thioridazine hydrochloride]],
[[Thiothixene]],
[[Tianeptine]],
[[Tiludronate]],
[[Tinidazole]],
[[Tiotropium]],
[[Tolterodine]],
[[Tolmetin]],
[[Topiramate]],
[[Topotecan]],
[[Trametinib dimethyl sulfoxide]],
[[Tranylcypromine]],
[[Tretinoin]],
[[Triazolam]],
[[Triclofos]],
[[Trifluoperazine]],
[[Trihexyphenidyl]],
[[Trimethadione]],
[[Trimipramine]],
[[Tropisetron]],
[[Trospium]],
[[Valganciclovir hydrochloride]],
[[Valproic acid]],
[[Venlafaxine]],
[[Verapamil]],
[[Vicodin]],
[[Vigabatrin]],
[[Viloxazine]],
[[Vinblastine]],
[[Vincristine]],
[[Vincristine|Vincristine sulfate liposome]],
[[Vindesine]],
[[Vinorelbine]],
[[Vorinostat]],
[[Zaleplon]],
[[Zidovudine]],
[[Zileuton]],
[[Ziprasidone]],
[[Zoledronic acid]],
[[Zolpidem]],
[[Zonisamide]],
[[Zotepine]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Conn's syndrome]],
[[Diabetes mellitus]],
[[Glucagonoma]],
[[Hashimoto's thyroiditis]],
[[Hyperparathyroidism]],
[[Hypothyroidism]],
[[Multiple endocrine neoplasia]],
[[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1]], [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2]],
[[Myxedema]],
[[Panhypopituitarism]],
[[Parathyroid adenoma]],
[[Pheochromocytoma]],
[[Primary parathyroid hyperplasia]],
[[Pseudohypoparathyroidism]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Milk intolerance|Cow’s milk intolerance]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Anal atresia]],
[[Anal carcinoma]],
[[Ascites]],
[[Adhesion (medicine)|bowel adhesion]],
[[Bowel obstruction]],
[[Polyposis|cap polyposis]],
[[Celiac disease]],
[[Chronic amebiasis]],
[[Colectomy]],
[[Stenosis|Colonic stricture]],
[[Colorectal cancer]],
[[Congenital malformation]],
[[enema|Corrosive enemas]],
[[Crohn's disease]],
[[Diverticulitis natural history, complications and prognosis|Diverticular stricture]],
[[Diverticulitis]],
[[Vaginal prolapse|Enterocele]],
[[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis|Eosinophilic colitis]],
[[pelvic masses|Extrinsic compression]],
[[Gastroptosis]],
[[Hernia]],
[[Hirschsprung's disease]],
[[Ileus]],
[[Imperforate anus]],
[[Inflammatory bowel disease]],
[[pelvic masses|Intraabdominal/pelvic tumors]],
[[Intussusception]],
[[Irritable bowel syndrome]],
[[Ischemic colitis]],
[[Megacolon]],
[[Megarectum]],
[[Ogilvie's syndrome]],
[[Defecation|Painful defecation]],
[[Paralytic ileus]],
[[Pelvic masses]],
[[Pelvic masses|Pelvic tumors]],
[[Perianal abscess]],
[[Proctitis]],
[[Rectal cancer]],
[[Rectal prolapse]],
[[Solitary rectal ulcer syndrome|Rectal ulcer]],
[[Rectocele]],
[[Ulcerative colitis]],
[[myopathy|Visceral myopathies]],
[[Volvulus]],
[[Wandering spleen]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | 
[[Batten disease]],
[[Berdon syndrome]],
[[Cerebral palsy]],
[[Cornelia de Lange syndrome]],
[[Cystic fibrosis]],
[[Down syndrome]],
[[Gastroschisis]],
[[Hereditary coproporphyria]],
[[myopathy|Hereditary internal anal sphincter myopathy]],
[[Megacolon]],
[[Megarectum]],
[[Prune belly syndrome]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Acute intermittent porphyria]],
[[Amyloidosis]],
[[Hereditary coproporphyria]],
[[Iron deficiency anemia]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Adjustable gastric band]],
[[Colectomy]],
[[Defecation|painful defecation]],
[[Peritoneal dialysis]],
[[surgery|Postoperative complications]],
[[ileus|Postoperative ileus]],
[[Toilet training|Toilet training issues]],
[[Upper gastrointestinal series]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Blastocystosis]],
[[Botulism]],
[[Chagas disease]],
[[Chronic amebiasis]],
[[Hookworm]],
[[Lassa fever]],
[[Lymphogranuloma venereum]],
[[Syphilis]],
[[Tuberculosis]],
[[Typhoid fever]],
[[Opisthorchis infection]],
[[Polio]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Ankylosing spondylitis]], [[Guillain-Barre syndrome]], [[Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Osteitis fibrosa cystica]], [[Paraplegia]], [[Spinal cord injury]], [[Spinal cord tumor]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]],
[[Autonomic neuropathy]],
[[Cerebral palsy]],
[[Chagas disease]],
[[Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy]],
[[Diabetes mellitus]],
[[Guillain-Barre syndrome]],
[[Hirschsprung's disease]],
[[Intestinal neuronal dysplasia]],
[[Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome]],
[[Meningocele]],
[[Multiple sclerosis]],
[[Muscular dystrophy]],
[[Neurofibromatosis]],
[[Occult spinal dysraphism sequence]],
[[Paraplegia]],
[[Parkinson's disease]],
[[Progressive supranuclear palsy]],
[[intestinal obstruction|Pseduoobstruction]],
[[Scleroderma]],
[[Spina bifida]],
[[Spinal cord injury]],
[[Spinal cord lesions]],
[[encephalopathy|Static encephalopathy]],
[[Tabes dorsalis]],
[[Tethered spinal cord syndrome]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Milk intolerance|Cow’s milk intolerance]],
[[Food intolerance]],
[[Hypercalcemia]],
[[Hypervitaminosis D]],
[[Hypokalemia]],
[[Iron deficiency anemia]],
[[Ketogenic diet]],
[[dietary fiber|Lack of fiber]],
[[Low residue diet]],
[[Milk-alkali syndrome]],
[[dehydration|Severe dehydration]],
[[Starvation]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Childbirth]], [[Complication of pregnancy]], [[Low birth weight|Extremely low birth weight]], [[Ovarian cancer]], [[Endometriosis|Rectovaginal or bowel endometriosis]], [[Uterine fibroid]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Colorectal cancer]], [[Pelvic masses|Intraabdominal/pelvic tumors]], [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN 2b)]], [[Neuroblastoma]], [[Ovarian cancer]], [[Parathyroid adenoma]], [[Rectal carcinoma]], [[Renal cell carcinoma]], [[Sacrococcygeal teratoma]], [[Spinal cord tumor]], [[Stomach cancer]], [[Uterine fibroid]].
 
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Opthalmologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Acamprosate]], [[Amiodarone]], [[Atropine]], [[Carboplatin]], [[Fentanyl]], [[Phenytoin]], [[Hypervitaminosis D]], [[Haloperidol]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Anorexia nervosa]],
[[Autism]],
[[Bipolar disorder]],
[[Eating disorder]],
[[Emotional stress]],
[[Major depression]],
[[Obsessive compulsive disorder]],
[[Pseudocyesis]],
[[Psychosis]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Cystic fibrosis]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Hypercalcemia]], [[Hypokalemia]], [[Renal cell carcinoma]], [[Dehydration|Severe dehydration]], [[Uremia]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]], [[Ankylosing spondylitis]], [[Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy]], [[Milk intolerance|Cow’s milk intolerance]], [[Food intolerance]], [[Guillain-Barre syndrome]], [[Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome]], [[Rett syndrome]], [[Scleroderma]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Tabes dorsalis]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Spinal cord injury]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Urogenital neoplasm]].
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[diet|Dietary pattern change]],
[[Dieting]],
[[bed rest|Extended bed rest]],
[[Functional constipation]],
[[Idiopathic]],
[[aging|Normal aging]],
[[Smoking cessation]],
[[SSRI discontinuation syndrome]],
Travel [[constipation]].
|-
|}
 
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
{{columns-list|
*[[5-HT3 antagonist]]
*[[5-Hydroxytryptophan]]
*[[Abdominal surgery]]
*[[Acamprosate]]
*[[Acebutolol]]
*[[Acute intermittent porphyria]]
*[[Adjustable gastric band]]
*[[Aldesleukin]]
*[[Alendronate]]
*[[Alfentanil]]
*[[Alfuzosin]]
*[[Alosetron]]
*[[Aluminium hydroxide]]
*[[Amantadine]]
*[[Amiodarone]]
*[[Amitriptyline]]
*[[Amlodipine]]
*[[Amobarbital]]
*[[Amyloidosis]]
*[[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]
*[[Anagrelide]]
*[[Anal atresia]]
*[[Anal carcinoma]]
*[[Anastrozole]]
*[[Ankylosing spondylitis]]
*[[Anorexia nervosa]]
*[[Aprepitant]]
*[[Aripiprazole]]
*[[Ascites]]
*[[Atorvastatin]]
*[[Atovaquone]]
*[[Atropine]]
*[[Auranofin]]
*[[Autism]]
*[[Autonomic neuropathy]]
*[[Barium sulfate]]
*[[Batten disease]]
*[[Belladonna]]
*[[Benzatropine]]
*[[Benzonatate]]
*[[Bepridil]]
*[[Berdon syndrome]]
*[[Beta blockers]]
*[[Bezafibrate]]
*[[Bile acid sequestrant]]
*[[Bipolar disorder]]
*[[Bismuth subsalicylate]]
*[[Blastocystosis]]
*[[Bortezomib]]
*[[Botulism]]
*[[Bowel obstruction]]
*[[Bromocriptine]]
*[[Buprenorphine]]/[[naloxone]]
*[[Buspirone]]
*[[Busulfan]]
*[[Butabarbital]]
*[[Butorphanol]]
*[[Cabergoline]]
*[[Calcitriol]]
*[[Calcium carbonate]]
*[[polyposis|Cap polyposis]]
*[[Capecitabine]]
*[[Carbamazepine]]
*[[Carboplatin]]
*[[Carfilzomib]]
*[[Carteolol]]
*[[Celiac disease]]
*[[Cerebral palsy]]
*[[Cerivastatin]]
*[[Cetuximab]]
*[[Chagas disease]]
*[[Childbirth]]
*[[Chlordiazepoxide]]
*[[Chloropyramine]]
*[[Chlorpheniramine]]
*[[Chlorpromazine]]
*[[Chlorpropamide]]
*[[Cholestyramine]]
*[[Chronic amebiasis]]
*[[Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy]]
*[[Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction]]
*[[Cidofovir]]
*[[Cilansetron]]
*[[Cimetidine]]
*[[Cimicifuga racemosa]]
*[[Cinnarizine]]
*[[Cisapride]]
*[[Citalopram]]
*[[Cladribine]]
*[[Clofarabine]]
*[[Clomipramine]]
*[[Clonazepam]]
*[[Clonidine]]
*[[Clorazepate]]
*[[Clozapine]]
*[[Codeine]]
*[[Colectomy]]
*[[Colesevelam]]
*[[Colestipol]]
*[[Colestyramine]]
*[[Colofac]]
*[[Colorectal cancer]]
*[[Conn's syndrome]]
*[[Cornelia de Lange Syndrome]]
*[[enema|Corrosive enema]]
*[[Milk intolerance|Cow’s milk intolerance]]
*[[Crohn's disease]]
*[[Cyclizine]]
*[[Cyclobenzaprine]]
*[[Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Daptomycin]]
*[[Darbepoetin alfa]]
*[[Darifenacin]]
*[[Darunavir]]
*[[Dehydration]]
*[[Dermatitis herpetiformis]]
*[[Desipramine]]
*[[Desvenlafaxine]]
*[[Dextroamphetamine]]
*[[Dextropropoxyphene]]
*[[Diabetes mellitus]]
*[[Diacetyldihydromorphine]]
*[[Diazepam]]
*[[Dicyclomine]]
*[[diet|Dietary pattern change]]
*[[Diethylcathinone]]
*[[Dieting]]
*[[Diflunisal]]
*[[Dihydroetorphine]]
*[[Diltiazem]]
*[[Dimenhydrinate]]
*[[Diphenhydramine]]
*[[Diphenoxylate]]
*[[Disopyramide]]
*[[Diuretic]]
*[[Diverticulitis natural history, complications and prognosis|Diverticular stricture]]
*[[Diverticulosis]]
*[[Dolasetron]]
*[[Doripenem]]
*[[Dosulepin hydrochloride]]
*[[Doxepin]]
*[[Droperidol]]
*[[Duloxetine]]
*[[Efavirenz]]
*[[Enfuvirtide]]
*[[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis|Eosinophilic colitis]]
*[[Epoetin Alfa]]
*[[Eribulin]]
*[[Esomeprazole]]
*[[Estazolam]]
*[[Estradiol]]
*[[Ethcathinone]]
*[[Ethosuximide]]
*[[Ethylmorphine]]
*[[Etodolac]]
*[[Etoposide]]
*[[Everolimus]]
*[[bed rest|Extended bed rest]]
*[[low birth weight|Extremely low birth weight]]
*[[pelvic masses|Extrinsic compression]]
*[[Famotidine]]
*[[Felbamate]]
*[[Felodipine]]
*[[Fenofibrate]]
*[[Fenoprofen]]
*[[Fentanyl]]
*[[Ferrous sulfate]]
*[[Fludarabine phosphate]]
*[[Fluorouracil]]
*[[Fluoxetine]]
*[[Fluphenazine]]
*[[Flurazepam]]
*[[Flurbiprofen]]
*[[Fluvoxamine]]
*[[Food allergy]]
*[[Food intolerance]]
*[[Fructose malabsorption]]
*[[Fulvestrant]]
*[[Functional constipation]]
*[[Furosemide]]
*[[Gabapentin]]
*[[Ganciclovir]]
*[[Gastroptosis]]
*[[Gatifloxacin]]
*[[Gemcitabine]]
*[[Gemcitabine]]
*[[Gemfibrozil]]
*[[Glipizide]]
*[[Glucagonoma]]
*[[Glycopyrrolate]]
*[[Granisetron]]
*[[Guanethidine]]
*[[Guanfacine]]
*[[Guillain-Barre syndrome]]
*[[H2 antagonist]]
*[[Haloperidol]]
*[[Hashimoto's thyroiditis]]
*[[Hereditary coproporphyria]]
*[[Hernia]]
*[[Heroin]]
*[[Hexamethonium]]
*[[Hirschsprung's disease]]
*[[vorinostat|Histone deacetylase inhibitors]]
*[[Hookworm]]
*[[Hydralazine]]
*[[Hydrocodone]]
*[[Hydroxyurea]]
*[[Hydroxyzine]]
*[[Hyoscyamine]]
*[[Hypercalcemia]]
*[[Hypervitaminosis D]]
*[[Hyperparathyroidism]]
*[[Hypokalemia]]
*[[Hypothyroidism]]
*[[Hypotonia]]
*[[Ibandronate]]
*[[Idiopathic]]
*[[Ileus]]
*[[Iliac artery aneurysm]]
*[[Imatinib]]
*[[Imipramine]]
*[[Imperforate anus]]
*[[Indomethacin]]
*[[Inflammatory bowel disease]]
*[[Infliximab]]
*[[Insulin lispro]]
*[[Interferon beta-1b]]
*[[Internal intussusception]]
*[[Intestinal neuronal dysplasia]]
*[[bowel obstruction|Intestinal pseduoobstruction]]
*[[pelvic masses|Intraabdominal/pelvic tumors]]
*[[Intussusception]]
*[[Ipratropium]]
*[[Irinotecan|Irinotecan hydrochloride]]
*[[Iron deficiency anemia]]
*[[Iron supplements]]
*[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]
*[[Ischemic colitis]]
*[[Isocarboxazid]]
*[[Isradipine]]
*[[Itraconazole]]
*[[Janumet]] ([[sitagliptin]] and [[metformin]])
*[[Jacobsen syndrome]]
*[[Kaolin]]
*[[Pectin]]
*[[Ketogenic diet]]
*[[Ketorolac]]
*[[Lacidipine]]
*[[Dietary fiber|Lack of fiber]]
*[[Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome]]
*[[Lamivudine]]
*[[Lamotrigine]]
*[[Lansoprazole]]
*[[Lanthanum]]
*[[Lassa fever]]
*[[Laxative abuse]]
*[[Lead poisoning]]
*[[Lerisetron]]
*[[Letrozole]]
*[[Leuprolide]]
*[[Levalbuterol]]
*[[Levetiracetam]]
*[[Levodopa]]
*[[Levomepromazine]]
*[[Levomethadyl]]
*[[Levorphanol]]
*[[Linezolid]]
*[[Lofepramine]]
*[[Lomotil]]
*[[Loperamide]]
*[[Loprazolam]]
*[[Lorazepam]]
*[[Lovastatin]]
*[[Low residue diet]]
*[[Loxapine]]
*[[Lymphogranuloma venereum]]
*[[Magaldrate]]
*[[Major depression]]
*[[Mebendazole]]
*[[Meclizine]]
*[[Meclofenamate]]
*[[Mefenamic acid]]
*[[Megacolon]]
*[[Megarectum]]
*[[Meningocele]]
*[[Meperidine]]
*[[Meropenem]]
*[[Mesalamine]]
*[[Mesoridazine]]
*[[Metformin]]
*[[Methadone]]
*[[Methsuximide]]
*[[Methyprylon]]
*[[Metoclopramide]]
*[[Metoprolol]]
*[[Mifepristone]]
*[[Milk-alkali syndrome]]
*[[Milnacipran hydrochloride]]
*[[Misoprostol]]
*[[Modafinil]]
*[[Morphine]]
*[[Motofen]]
*[[Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN 2b)]]
*[[Multiple sclerosis]]
*[[Muscular dystrophies]]
*[[Mycophenolate]]
*[[Myxedema]]
*[[Nabumetone]]
*[[Naproxen sodium]]
*[[Nateglinide]]
*[[Nefazodone]]
*[[Neuroblastoma]]
*[[Nialamide]]
*[[Nicardipine]]
*[[Nifedipine]]
*[[Nilutamide]]
*[[Nimodipine]]
*[[Nisoldipine]]
*[[Nizatidine]]
*[[aging|Normal aging]]
*[[Nortriptyline]]
*[[Occult spinal dysraphism sequence]]
*[[Ogilvie's syndrome]]
*[[Olanzapine]]
*[[Omeprazole]]
*[[Ondansetron]]
*[[Opisthorchis infection]]
*[[Opium]]
*[[Osteitis fibrosa cystica]]
*[[Parathyroid adenoma]]
*[[Ovarian cancer]]
*[[Oxaliplatin injection]]
*[[Oxazepam]]
*[[Oxcarbazepine]]
*[[Oxybutynin]]
*[[Oxycodone]]
*[[defecation|Painful defecation]]
*[[Palonosetron]]
*[[Pamidronate]]
*[[Pancrelipase]]
*[[Panhypopituitarism]]
*[[Papaverine]]
*[[Paralytic ileus]]
*[[Parkinson disease]]
*[[Paroxetine]]
*[[Peginterferon alfa-2b]]
*[[Pemetrexed]]
*[[Perazine]]
*[[Pergolide]]
*[[Peritoneal dialysis]]
*[[Perphenazine]]
*[[Pethidine]]
*[[Phenelzine]]
*[[Phentermine]]
*[[Phenytoin]]
*[[Pheochromocytoma]]
*[[Pholcodine]]
*[[Pimozide]]
*[[Piperacillin sodium]]
*[[Pipothiazine]]
*[[Piribedil]]
*[[Piroxicam]]
*[[Pizotifen]]
*[[Polio]]
*[[Polyp]]
*[[Posaconazole]]
*[[ileus|Postoperative ileus]]
*[[Pramipexole]]
*[[Prazepam]]
*[[Prazosin]]
*[[Prednisolone]]
*[[Pregabalin]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
*[[Primary hyperparathyroidism]]
*[[Procarbazine]]
*[[Prochlorperazine]]
*[[Proctitis]]
*[[Procyclidine]]
*[[Progesterone]]
*[[Progressive supranuclear palsy]]
*[[Promethazine]]
*[[Propafenone]]
*[[Propantheline]]
*[[Propoxyphene]]
*[[Propranolol]]
*[[Protriptyline]]
*[[Prune belly syndrome]]
*[[Pseudocyesis]]
*[[Pseudohypoparathyroidism]]
*[[Quetiapine]]
*[[Rabeprazole]]
*[[Ranitidine]]
*[[Ranolazine]]
*[[Rasagiline]]
*[[Reboxetine]]
*[[Rectal carcinoma]]
*[[Rectocele]]
*[[endometriosis|Rectovaginal or bowel endometriosis]]
*[[Renal cell carcinoma]]
*[[Repaglinide]]
*[[Rett syndrome]]
*[[Ribavirin]]
*[[Rilmenidine]]
*[[Risperidone]]
*[[Rivastigmine]]
*[[Ropinirole]]
*[[Rosuvastatin]]
*[[Sacrococcygeal teratoma]]
*[[Saquinavir]]
*[[Scleroderma]]
*[[Scopolamine]]
*[[Secobarbital]]
*[[Selegiline]]
*[[Sertraline]]
*[[Sevelamer]]
*[[Sibutramine]]
*[[Siltuximab]]
*[[Simethicone]]
*[[Simvastatin]]
*[[Sirolimus]]
*[[Sitaxsentan]]
*[[Smoking cessation]]
*[[Solifenacin]]
*[[Sorafenib]]
*[[Sotalol]]
*[[Spina bifida]]
*[[Spinal cord injury]]
*[[Spinal cord lesions]]
*[[SSRI discontinuation syndrome]]
*[[Starvation]]
*[[encephalopathy|Static encephalopathy]]
*[[Stomach cancer]]
*[[Sucralfate]]
*[[Sufentanil]]
*[[Sulindac]]
*[[Sunitinib]]
*[[Acute mesenteric ischemia|Superior mesenteric artery occlusion]]
*[[Suxamethonium chloride]]
*[[Syphilis]]
*[[Systemic sclerosis]]
*[[Tabes dorsalis]]
*[[Tacrolimus]]
*[[Tamoxifen]]
*[[Tapentadol]]
*[[Tazobactam]]
*[[Tegaserod]]
*[[Temazepam]]
*[[Temozolomide]]
*[[Terazosin]]
*[[Teriparatide]]
*[[Tethered spinal cord syndrome]]
*[[Thalidomide]]
*[[Thioridazine hydrochloride]]
*[[Thiothixene]]
*[[Tianeptine]]
*[[Tiludronate]]
*[[Tinidazole]]
*[[Tiotropium]]
*[[Toilet training|Toilet training issues]]
*[[Tolterodine]]
*[[Topiramate]]
*[[Topotecan]]
*[[Toxic megacolon]]
*[[trametinib dimethyl sulfoxide]]
*[[Tranylcypromine]]
*[[Post travel depression|Travel constipation]]
*[[Tretinoin]]
*[[Triazolam]]
*[[Triclofos]]
*[[Trifluoperazine]]
*[[Trihexyphenidyl]]
*[[Trimethadione]]
*[[Trimipramine]]
*[[Tropisetron]]
*[[Trospium]]
*[[Tuberculosis]]
*[[Typhoid fever]]
*[[Ulcerative colitis]]
*[[Upper gastrointestinal series]]
*[[Urogenital neoplasm]]
*[[Uterine fibroid]]
*[[Valganciclovir hydrochloride]]
*[[Valproic acid]]
*[[Venlafaxine]]
*[[Verapamil]]
*[[Vicodin]]
*[[Vigabatrin]]
*[[Viloxazine]]
*[[Vinblastine]]
*[[Vincristine]]
*[[Vindesine]]
*[[Vinorelbine]]
*[[Vinorelbine]]
*[[myopathy|Visceral myopathies]]
*[[Visceroptosis]]
*[[Volvulus]]
*[[Vorinostat]]
*[[Wandering spleen]]
*[[Williams-Beuren syndrome]]
*[[Zaleplon]]
*[[Zidovudine]]
*[[Zileuton]]
*[[Ziprasidone]]
*[[Zoledronic acid]]
*[[Zolpidem]]
*[[Zonisamide]]
*[[Zotepine]]
}}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}
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{{WikiDoc Sources}}
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]
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Latest revision as of 21:07, 29 July 2020

Constipation Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mugilan Poongkunran M.B.B.S [2], Eiman Ghaffarpasand, M.D. [3]

Overview

Constipation in adults may be due to side effects of medications, such as antispasmodics, anticholinergics, analgesics; or may be associated with systemic disorders, such as diabetes mellitus and hypothyroidism. Idiopathic constipation should be considered once the secondary causes are ruled out and it may be associated with normal or slow colonic transit, dysfunction in defecation, or both. Constipation in childhood often resolves with age after proper guidance regarding diet, toilet training, and toileting behaviors.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated. These conditions include the followings:[1]

Common Causes

Common causes of constipation include:[2][3][4][5][6]

Less Common Causes

Less common causes of constipation include:[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Iliac artery aneurysm, Superior mesenteric artery occlusion.
Chemical / poisoning Atropine poisoning, Lead poisoning, Opium poisoning.
Dermatologic Dermatitis herpetiformis.
Drug Side Effect

5-HT3 antagonist, 5-hydroxytryptophan, Acamprosate, Acebutolol, Acetaminophen, Aldesleukin, Alendronate, Alfentanil, Alfuzosin, Alosetron, Alprazolam, Aluminium hydroxide, Amiodarone, Amitriptyline, Amlodipine, Amobarbital, Anagrelide, Anastrozole, Aprepitant, Aripiprazole, Atorvastatin, Atovaquone, Atropine, Auranofin, Axitinib, Azacitidine Barium sulfate, Basiliximab, Benzatropine, Benzonatate, Bepridil, Beta blockers, Bezafibrate, Bicalutamide, Bile acid sequestrant, Bortezomib, Bromocriptine, Buspirone, Busulfan, Butabarbital, Butorphanol, Calcitriol, Calcium carbonate, Capecitabine, Caspofungin acetate, Carbamazepine, Carbidopa, Carboplatin, Carfilzomib, Carteolol, Cerivastatin, Cetuximab, Chlordiazepoxide, Chloropyramine, Chlorpromazine, Chlorpropamide, Cholestyramine, Cidofovir, Cimetidine, Cisapride, Citalopram, Cladribine, Clobazam, Clofarabine, Clomipramine, Clonazepam, Clonidine, Clorazepate, Clozapine, Codeine, Colesevelam, Colestipol, Colofac, Crizotinib, Cyclizine, Cyclobenzaprine, Cytarabine liposome Daptomycin, Darbepoetin alfa, Darifenacin, Darunavir, Desipramine, Desvenlafaxine, Dextroamphetamine, Dextropropoxyphene, Diacetyldihydromorphine, Diazepam, Dicyclomine, Diethylcathinone, Diflunisal, Dihydroetorphine, Diltiazem, Dimenhydrinate, Diphenhydramine, Disopyramide, Diuretic, Dolasetron, Dolasetron, Doripenem, Dosulepin hydrochloride, Doxepin, Droperidol, Duloxetine, Efavirenz, Enfuvirtide, Enzalutamide, Epoetin alfa, Eribulin, Esomeprazole, Estazolam, Estradiol, Ethcathinone, Ethosuximide, Ethylmorphine, Etodolac, Etoposide, Everolimus, Famotidine, Felbamate, Felodipine, Fenofibrate, Fenoprofen, Fentanyl, Ferrous sulfate, Fesoterodine, Fludarabine phosphate, Fluorouracil, Fluoxetine, Fluphenazine, Flurazepam, Flurbiprofen, Fluvoxamine, Fulvestrant, Furosemide, Gabapentin, Ganciclovir, Gatifloxacin, Gemcitabine, Gemfibrozil, Glipizide, Glycopyrrolate, Granisetron, Guanethidine, Guanfacine, H2 antagonist, Haloperidol, Hexamethonium, Histone deacetylase inhibitors, Hydralazine, Hydrocodone, Hydrocodone bitartrate and Homatropine methylbromide, Hydroxyurea, Hydroxyzine, Hyoscyamine, Hydrochlorothiazide, Ibandronate, Imatinib, Imipramine, Indomethacin, Insulin lispro, Interferon beta-1b, Ipratropium, Irinotecan hydrochloride, Iron supplements, Isocarboxazid, Isradipine, Itraconazole, Ivermectin, Kaolin, Ketorolac tromethamine, Lacidipine, Lamivudine, Lamotrigine, Lansoprazole, Lanthanum, Leflunomide, Lenalidomide, Letrozole, Leuprolide, Levalbuterol, Levetiracetam, Levodopa, Levomethadyl, Levorphanol, Linezolid, Lofepramine, Lomotil, Lorcaserin, Loperamide, Loprazolam, Lorazepam, Lovastatin, Lovaza, Loxapine, Magaldrate, Mebendazole, Meclizine, Meclofenamate, Mefenamic acid, Meperidine, Meropenem, Mesalamine, Mesna, Mesoridazine, Metformin, Methadone, Methsuximide, Methyprylon, Metoprolol, Mifepristone, Milnacipran hydrochloride, Misoprostol, Modafinil, Morphine, Motofen, Nabumetone, Naproxen sodium, Nateglinide, Nefazodone, Netupitant and palonosetron, Nicardipine, Nifedipine, Nilotinib, Nilutamide, Nimodipine, Nisoldipine, Nizatidine, Nortriptyline, Olanzapine, Omeprazole, Ondansetron, Oxaliplatin, Oxazepam, Oxcarbazepine, Oxybutynin, Oxycodone, Palonosetron, Pamidronate, Pancrelipase, Paroxetine, Peginterferon alfa-2b, Pemetrexed, Pentamidine Isethionate, Pergolide, Perphenazine, Pethidine, Phenelzine, Phentermine, Phenytoin, Pholcodine, Pimozide, Piperacillin sodium, Piroxicam, Posaconazole, Pramipexole, Prazepam, Prazosin, Prednisolone, Pregabalin, Procarbazine, Prochlorperazine, Procyclidine, Progesterone, Promethazine, Propafenone, Propantheline, Propoxyphene, Propranolol, Protriptyline, Quetiapine, Rabeprazole, Ranitidine, Ranolazine, Rasagiline, Rasburicase, Reboxetine, Repaglinide, Ribavirin, Rilmenidine, Risperidone, Rivastigmine, Ropinirole, Rosuvastatin, Sacrosidase, Saquinavir, Scopolamine, Scopolamine, Secobarbital, Selegiline, Sertraline, Sevelamer, Sibutramine, Siltuximab, Simethicone, Simvastatin, Sirolimus, Sitaxsentan, Sorafenib, Sotalol, Sucralfate, Sufentanil, Sulindac, Sunitinib, Suxamethonium chloride, Tacrolimus, Tamoxifen, Tapentadol, Tegaserod, Temazepam, Temozolomide, Terazosin, Teriparatide, Tetraferric tricitrate decahydrate, Thalidomide, Thioridazine hydrochloride, Thiothixene, Tianeptine, Tiludronate, Tinidazole, Tiotropium, Tolterodine, Tolmetin, Topiramate, Topotecan, Trametinib dimethyl sulfoxide, Tranylcypromine, Tretinoin, Triazolam, Triclofos, Trifluoperazine, Trihexyphenidyl, Trimethadione, Trimipramine, Tropisetron, Trospium, Valganciclovir hydrochloride, Valproic acid, Venlafaxine, Verapamil, Vicodin, Vigabatrin, Viloxazine, Vinblastine, Vincristine, Vincristine sulfate liposome, Vindesine, Vinorelbine, Vorinostat, Zaleplon, Zidovudine, Zileuton, Ziprasidone, Zoledronic acid, Zolpidem, Zonisamide, Zotepine.

Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine

Conn's syndrome, Diabetes mellitus, Glucagonoma, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Hyperparathyroidism, Hypothyroidism, Multiple endocrine neoplasia, Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, Myxedema, Panhypopituitarism, Parathyroid adenoma, Pheochromocytoma, Primary parathyroid hyperplasia, Pseudohypoparathyroidism.

Environmental Cow’s milk intolerance
Gastroenterologic

Anal atresia, Anal carcinoma, Ascites, bowel adhesion, Bowel obstruction, cap polyposis, Celiac disease, Chronic amebiasis, Colectomy, Colonic stricture, Colorectal cancer, Congenital malformation, Corrosive enemas, Crohn's disease, Diverticular stricture, Diverticulitis, Enterocele, Eosinophilic colitis, Extrinsic compression, Gastroptosis, Hernia, Hirschsprung's disease, Ileus, Imperforate anus, Inflammatory bowel disease, Intraabdominal/pelvic tumors, Intussusception, Irritable bowel syndrome, Ischemic colitis, Megacolon, Megarectum, Ogilvie's syndrome, Painful defecation, Paralytic ileus, Pelvic masses, Pelvic tumors, Perianal abscess, Proctitis, Rectal cancer, Rectal prolapse, Rectal ulcer, Rectocele, Ulcerative colitis, Visceral myopathies, Volvulus, Wandering spleen.

Genetic

Batten disease, Berdon syndrome, Cerebral palsy, Cornelia de Lange syndrome, Cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome, Gastroschisis, Hereditary coproporphyria, Hereditary internal anal sphincter myopathy, Megacolon, Megarectum, Prune belly syndrome.

Hematologic

Acute intermittent porphyria, Amyloidosis, Hereditary coproporphyria, Iron deficiency anemia.

Iatrogenic

Adjustable gastric band, Colectomy, painful defecation, Peritoneal dialysis, Postoperative complications, Postoperative ileus, Toilet training issues, Upper gastrointestinal series.

Infectious Disease

Blastocystosis, Botulism, Chagas disease, Chronic amebiasis, Hookworm, Lassa fever, Lymphogranuloma venereum, Syphilis, Tuberculosis, Typhoid fever, Opisthorchis infection, Polio.

Musculoskeletal / Ortho Ankylosing spondylitis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, Muscular dystrophy, Osteitis fibrosa cystica, Paraplegia, Spinal cord injury, Spinal cord tumor.
Neurologic

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Autonomic neuropathy, Cerebral palsy, Chagas disease, Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Diabetes mellitus, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Hirschsprung's disease, Intestinal neuronal dysplasia, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, Meningocele, Multiple sclerosis, Muscular dystrophy, Neurofibromatosis, Occult spinal dysraphism sequence, Paraplegia, Parkinson's disease, Progressive supranuclear palsy, Pseduoobstruction, Scleroderma, Spina bifida, Spinal cord injury, Spinal cord lesions, Static encephalopathy, Tabes dorsalis, Tethered spinal cord syndrome.

Nutritional / Metabolic

Cow’s milk intolerance, Food intolerance, Hypercalcemia, Hypervitaminosis D, Hypokalemia, Iron deficiency anemia, Ketogenic diet, Lack of fiber, Low residue diet, Milk-alkali syndrome, Severe dehydration, Starvation.

Obstetric/Gynecologic Childbirth, Complication of pregnancy, Extremely low birth weight, Ovarian cancer, Rectovaginal or bowel endometriosis, Uterine fibroid.
Oncologic Colorectal cancer, Intraabdominal/pelvic tumors, Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN 2b), Neuroblastoma, Ovarian cancer, Parathyroid adenoma, Rectal carcinoma, Renal cell carcinoma, Sacrococcygeal teratoma, Spinal cord tumor, Stomach cancer, Uterine fibroid.
Opthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity Acamprosate, Amiodarone, Atropine, Carboplatin, Fentanyl, Phenytoin, Hypervitaminosis D, Haloperidol.
Psychiatric

Anorexia nervosa, Autism, Bipolar disorder, Eating disorder, Emotional stress, Major depression, Obsessive compulsive disorder, Pseudocyesis, Psychosis.

Pulmonary Cystic fibrosis.
Renal / Electrolyte Hypercalcemia, Hypokalemia, Renal cell carcinoma, Severe dehydration, Uremia.
Rheum / Immune / Allergy

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Ankylosing spondylitis, Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Cow’s milk intolerance, Food intolerance, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, Rett syndrome, Scleroderma.

Sexual Tabes dorsalis.
Trauma Spinal cord injury.
Urologic Urogenital neoplasm.
Miscellaneous

Dietary pattern change, Dieting, Extended bed rest, Functional constipation, Idiopathic, Normal aging, Smoking cessation, SSRI discontinuation syndrome, Travel constipation.

Causes in Alphabetical Order

References

  1. ↑ Hennessey A, Robertson NP, Swingler R, Compston DA (1999). "Urinary, faecal and sexual dysfunction in patients with multiple sclerosis". J Neurol. 246 (11): 1027–32. PMID 10631634.
  2. ↑ Roma E, Adamidis D, Nikolara R, Constantopoulos A, Messaritakis J (1999). "Diet and chronic constipation in children: the role of fiber". J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 28 (2): 169–74. PMID 9932850.
  3. ↑ Caldarella MP, Milano A, Laterza F; et al. (2005). "Visceral sensitivity and symptoms in patients with constipation- or diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): effect of a low-fat intraduodenal infusion". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100 (2): 383–9. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.40100.x. PMID 15667496.
  4. ↑ "Nicotine withdrawal symptoms:Constipation". helpwithsmoking.com. 2005. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  5. ↑ Langston JW (2006). "The Parkinson's complex: parkinsonism is just the tip of the iceberg". Ann Neurol. 59 (4): 591–6. doi:10.1002/ana.20834. PMID 16566021.
  6. ↑ Stadtler AC, Gorski PA, Brazelton TB (1999). "Toilet training methods, clinical interventions, and recommendations. American Academy of Pediatrics". Pediatrics. 103 (6 Pt 2): 1359–68. PMID 10353954.
  7. ↑ Richardson PG, Barlogie B, Berenson J, Singhal S, Jagannath S, Irwin D; et al. (2003). "A phase 2 study of bortezomib in relapsed, refractory myeloma". N Engl J Med. 348 (26): 2609–17. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa030288. PMID 12826635.
  8. ↑ Bookman ID, Redston MS, Greenberg GR (2004). "Successful treatment of cap polyposis with infliximab". Gastroenterology. 126 (7): 1868–71. PMID 15188181.
  9. ↑ Figueroa JJ, Dyck PJ, Laughlin RS, Mercado JA, Massie R, Sandroni P; et al. (2012). "Autonomic dysfunction in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy". Neurology. 78 (10): 702–8. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182494d66. PMC 3306161. PMID 22357716.
  10. ↑ Stanghellini V, Cogliandro RF, De Giorgio R, Barbara G, Morselli-Labate AM, Cogliandro L; et al. (2005). "Natural history of chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction in adults: a single center study". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 3 (5): 449–58. PMID 15880314.
  11. ↑ Kárpáti S (2011). "An exception within the group of autoimmune blistering diseases: dermatitis herpetiformis, the gluten-sensitive dermopathy". Dermatol Clin. 29 (3): 463–8, x. doi:10.1016/j.det.2011.03.019. PMID 21605813.
  12. ↑ Kühnel A, Gross U, Doss MO (2000). "Hereditary coproporphyria in Germany: clinical-biochemical studies in 53 patients". Clin Biochem. 33 (6): 465–73. PMID 11074238.
  13. ↑ Ritchie D, Piekarz RL, Blombery P, Karai LJ, Pittaluga S, Jaffe ES; et al. (2009). "Reactivation of DNA viruses in association with histone deacetylase inhibitor therapy: a case series report". Haematologica. 94 (11): 1618–22. doi:10.3324/haematol.2009.008607. PMC 2770976. PMID 19608677.
  14. ↑ Levi N, Schroeder TV (1998). "Isolated iliac artery aneurysms". Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 16 (4): 342–4. PMID 9818012.
  15. ↑ Favier R, Jondeau K, Boutard P, Grossfeld P, Reinert P, Jones C; et al. (2003). "Paris-Trousseau syndrome : clinical, hematological, molecular data of ten new cases". Thromb Haemost. 90 (5): 893–7. doi:10.1267/THRO03050893. PMID 14597985.
  16. ↑ O'Suilleabhain P, Low PA, Lennon VA (1998). "Autonomic dysfunction in the Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome: serologic and clinical correlates". Neurology. 50 (1): 88–93. PMID 9443463.
  17. ↑ Lopez-Ibor J, Guelfi JD, Pletan Y, Tournoux A, Prost JF (1996). "Milnacipran and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in major depression". Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 11 Suppl 4: 41–6. PMID 8923126.
  18. ↑ Jetmore AB, Timmcke AE, Gathright JB, Hicks TC, Ray JE, Baker JW (1992). "Ogilvie's syndrome: colonoscopic decompression and analysis of predisposing factors". Dis Colon Rectum. 35 (12): 1135–42. PMID 1473414.
  19. ↑ Partin JC, Hamill SK, Fischel JE, Partin JS (1992). "Painful defecation and fecal soiling in children". Pediatrics. 89 (6 Pt 1): 1007–9. PMID 1594338.
  20. ↑ Margulies A, Metman EH, Girard JJ, Dorval ED, Bertrand J (1986). "[Severe constipation indicative of pseudohypoparathyroidism and resolved after normalization of the blood calcium]". Ann Gastroenterol Hepatol (Paris). 22 (5): 271–2. PMID 3777869.
  21. ↑ Euvrard S, Morelon E, Rostaing L, Goffin E, Brocard A, Tromme I; et al. (2012). "Sirolimus and secondary skin-cancer prevention in kidney transplantation". N Engl J Med. 367 (4): 329–39. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1204166. PMID 22830463.
  22. ↑ Waage A, Gimsing P, Fayers P, Abildgaard N, Ahlberg L, Björkstrand B; et al. (2010). "Melphalan and prednisone plus thalidomide or placebo in elderly patients with multiple myeloma". Blood. 116 (9): 1405–12. doi:10.1182/blood-2009-08-237974. PMID 20448107.
  23. ↑ Sforzini C, Milani D, Fossali E, Barbato A, Grumieri G, Bianchetti MG; et al. (2002). "Renal tract ultrasonography and calcium homeostasis in Williams-Beuren syndrome". Pediatr Nephrol. 17 (11): 899–902. doi:10.1007/s00467-002-0889-z. PMID 12432430.
  24. ↑ Peeters B, Noens I, Philips EM, Kuppens S, Benninga MA (2013). "Autism spectrum disorders in children with functional defecation disorders". J Pediatr. 163 (3): 873–8. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.02.028. PMID 23522863.
  25. ↑ Yang LP, Plosker GL (2008). "Desvenlafaxine extended release". CNS Drugs. 22 (12): 1061–9. doi:10.2165/0023210-200822120-00008. PMID 18998743.
  26. ↑ Kikuta S, Asakage T, Nakao K, Sugasawa M, Kubota A (2008). "The aggravating factors of hyperammonemia related to 5-fluorouracil infusion--a report of two cases". Auris Nasus Larynx. 35 (2): 295–9. doi:10.1016/j.anl.2007.04.012. PMID 17826933.
  27. ↑ Legha SS (1986). "Vincristine neurotoxicity. Pathophysiology and management". Med Toxicol. 1 (6): 421–7. PMID 3540519.

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