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{{Kawasaki Syndrome}}
{{Kawasaki Syndrome}}
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==Overview==
==Overview==
Kawasaki disease, also known as lymph node syndrome, mucocutaneous node disease, infantile polyarteritis, and Kawasaki syndrome, is a poorly understood self-limited vasculitis that affects many organs, including the [[skin]], [[mucous membranes]], [[lymph nodes]], [[blood vessel walls]], and the [[heart]]. There is no evidence that Kawasaki disease is contagious. It was first described in 1967 by Dr. Tomisaku Kawasaki in Japan<ref name="pmid6062087">{{cite journal| author=Kawasaki T| title=[Acute febrile mucocutaneous syndrome with lymphoid involvement with specific desquamation of the fingers and toes in children]. | journal=Arerugi | year= 1967 | volume= 16 | issue= 3 | pages= 178-222 | pmid=6062087 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6062087  }} </ref>. Kawasaki disease is predominantly a disease of young children, with 80% of patients younger than 5 years of age. Additional risk factors in the United States include Asian race and male sex. Kawasaki disease can cause vasculitic changes ([[inflammation]] of blood vessels) in the coronary arteries and subsequent coronary artery aneurysms. Common symptoms of Kawasaki disease include high-grade fever, red eyes, bright red and cracked lips, red mucous membranes in the mouth, strawberry tongue, white coating on the tongue or prominent red bumps ([[papillae]]) on the back of the tongue, red palms of the hands and soles of the feet, swollen hands and feet, and rash. Intravenous immunoglobulin(IVIG) and aspirin are indicated in Kawasaki disease.
Kawasaki disease, also known as lymph node syndrome, mucocutaneous node disease, infantile polyarteritis, and Kawasaki syndrome, is a poorly understood self-limited [[vasculitis]] that affects many organs, including the [[skin]], [[mucous membranes]], [[lymph nodes]], [[blood vessel]] walls, and the [[heart]]. There is no evidence that Kawasaki disease is contagious. It was first described in 1967 by Dr. Tomisaku Kawasaki in Japan<ref name="pmid6062087">{{cite journal| author=Kawasaki T| title=[Acute febrile mucocutaneous syndrome with lymphoid involvement with specific desquamation of the fingers and toes in children]. | journal=Arerugi | year= 1967 | volume= 16 | issue= 3 | pages= 178-222 | pmid=6062087 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6062087  }} </ref>. Kawasaki disease is predominantly a disease of young children, with 80% of patients younger than 5 years of age. Additional risk factors in the United States include the Asian race and male sex. Kawasaki disease can cause vasculitic changes ([[inflammation]] of blood vessels) in the coronary arteries and subsequent coronary artery aneurysms( reported in about 25% of cases). Common symptoms of Kawasaki disease include high-grade fever, red eyes, bright red and cracked lips, red [[mucous membrane]]s in the mouth, [[strawberry tongue]], white coating on the tongue or prominent red bumps ([[papillae]]) on the back of the [[tongue]], red palms of the hands and soles of the feet, swollen hands, and feet, and [[rash]].  Echocardiography can be used to detect coronary artery dilatations and aneurysms. Intravenous immunoglobulin(IVIG) and [[aspirin]] are used to treat Kawasaki disease.
 
==Historical Perspective==
The first case of Kawasaki disease was seen at a Red Cross Hospital in a suburb of Tokyo,Japan in 1961 by Tomisaku Kawasaki, a Japanese pediatrician<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/kawasaki/index.html#:~:text=Kawasaki%20disease%20(KD)%2C%20also,reported%20in%20Hawaii%20in%201976. |title=Kawasaki Syndrome &#124; CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>. He published his first case report in 1967 in the Japanese language. He founded the Kawasaki Disease Research Center in 1990. He expired on 14 June 2020 at the age of 95.
 
Initially, it was thought to be a self-limiting disease without any long term side effects. In the late '60s, Dr Noboru Tanaka and Dr Takajiro Yamamoto contested against this assumption based on their own experiences. In 1970, the first Japanese Nationwide Survey of the disease was done and it included a question regarding the cardiac sequelae of KD. This helped in confirming the suspicions of Dr Tanaka and Dr Yamamoto<ref name="pmid10920183">{{cite journal| author=Burns JC, Kushner HI, Bastian JF, Shike H, Shimizu C, Matsubara T | display-authors=etal| title=Kawasaki disease: A brief history. | journal=Pediatrics | year= 2000 | volume= 106 | issue= 2 | pages= E27 | pmid=10920183 | doi=10.1542/peds.106.2.e27 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10920183  }} </ref>.
 
The Committee on Infectious Diseases of the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended IVIG as a therapy for kids with KD in 1988<ref> American Academy of Pediatrics. Kawasaki disease. In: Peter G, ed. 1988 Red Book: Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 21st ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 1988:251–254</ref>. Since then it has become the standard of care for the disease.
 
==Classification==
Kawasaki Disease can be classified as typical and atypical.
 
Typical cases fulfill the clinical diagnostic criteria.
 
Atypical or Incomplete Kawasaki disease cases are the ones that do not completely fulfill the clinical diagnostic criteria but have atypical clinical findings such as renal impairment<ref>Diagnosis, Treatment, and Long-Term Management of Kawasaki Disease: A Statement for Health Professionals From the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2182</ref>. These cases are more common in young infants rather than older children. This makes diagnosing such cases imperative.


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==
The pathophysiology of Kawasaki disease is not well understood.
Most of the current theories are of immunological origin. It is primarily a necrotizing inflammation of the medium-sized blood vessels affecting multiple organ systems. This can lead to various complications such as [[pericarditis]], [[pneumonitis]], [[myocarditis]], [[aseptic meningitis]], coronary artery aneurysms, etc. It leads to [[chronic inflammation]] of blood vessels which can evolve into [[stenosis]] as well as [[aneurysm]]s. On microscopic analysis, [[ciliated bronchial epithelial]] cells frequently show [[intracytoplasmic inclusion-bodies]].
Some believe that infectious agents combined with genetic predisposition lead to the development of Kawasaki Disease<ref name="pmid30619784">{{cite journal| author=Rowley AH, Shulman ST| title=The Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of Kawasaki Disease. | journal=Front Pediatr | year= 2018 | volume= 6 | issue=  | pages= 374 | pmid=30619784 | doi=10.3389/fped.2018.00374 | pmc=6298241 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30619784  }} </ref>. But, the research in this direction has been controversial.
==Causes==
The etiology of Kawasaki disease remains unclear<ref>https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kawasaki-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20354598</ref>. A number of theories have been proposed suggesting various bacteria, viruses, and environmental factors as the trigger for the immune response in genetically susceptible individuals<ref name="pmid20690826">{{cite journal| author=Rowley AH| title=Kawasaki disease: novel insights into etiology and genetic susceptibility. | journal=Annu Rev Med | year= 2011 | volume= 62 | issue=  | pages= 69-77 | pmid=20690826 | doi=10.1146/annurev-med-042409-151944 | pmc=3021097 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20690826  }} </ref>. However, none of these theories have been proven to date.
While [[genetic predisposition]] has been observed in Kawasaki disease, the pattern of [[inheritance]] is unclear. The children, as well as the siblings of Kawasaki disease patients, are at an increased risk of developing the disease. One of the genes implicated in the pathogenesis of Kawasaki disease is the ITPKC [[gene]]<ref name="pmid18084290">{{cite journal| author=Onouchi Y, Gunji T, Burns JC, Shimizu C, Newburger JW, Yashiro M | display-authors=etal| title=ITPKC functional polymorphism associated with Kawasaki disease susceptibility and formation of coronary artery aneurysms. | journal=Nat Genet | year= 2008 | volume= 40 | issue= 1 | pages= 35-42 | pmid=18084290 | doi=10.1038/ng.2007.59 | pmc=2876982 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18084290  }} </ref>. It codes for the enzyme Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 3-kinase C (ITPKC), which is responsible for the negative regulation of [[T-cell]] activation. [[Polymorphism]]s of this gene lead to varying levels of potential for [[T-lymphocyte]] activation in different individuals.
==Differentiating Kawasaki disease from other diseases==
Different [[rash]]-like conditions can be confused with [[Kawasaki Disease]] and are thus included in its differential diagnosis. The various conditions that should be differentiated from [[Kawasaki Disease]] include:<ref name="pmid25250996">{{cite journal| author=Hartman-Adams H, Banvard C, Juckett G| title=Impetigo: diagnosis and treatment. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 2014 | volume= 90 | issue= 4 | pages= 229-35 | pmid=25250996 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25250996  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27265069">{{cite journal| author=Mehta N, Chen KK, Kroumpouzos G| title=Skin disease in pregnancy: The approach of the obstetric medicine physician. | journal=Clin Dermatol | year= 2016 | volume= 34 | issue= 3 | pages= 320-6 | pmid=27265069 | doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2016.02.003 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27265069  }} </ref><ref name="MooreSeward2006">{{cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=Zack S|last2=Seward|first2=Jane F|last3=Lane|first3=J Michael|title=Smallpox|journal=The Lancet|volume=367|issue=9508|year=2006|pages=425–435|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68143-9}}</ref><ref name="pmid26612370">{{cite journal| author=Ibrahim F, Khan T, Pujalte GG| title=Bacterial Skin Infections. | journal=Prim Care | year= 2015 | volume= 42 | issue= 4 | pages= 485-99 | pmid=26612370 | doi=10.1016/j.pop.2015.08.001 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26612370  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26566601">{{cite journal| author=Ramoni S, Boneschi V, Cusini M| title=Syphilis as "the great imitator": a case of impetiginoid syphiloderm. | journal=Int J Dermatol | year= 2016 | volume= 55 | issue= 3 | pages= e162-3 | pmid=26566601 | doi=10.1111/ijd.13072 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26566601  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25855021">{{cite journal| author=Kimura U, Yokoyama K, Hiruma M, Kano R, Takamori K, Suga Y| title=Tinea faciei caused by Trichophyton mentagrophytes (molecular type Arthroderma benhamiae ) mimics impetigo : a case report and literature review of cases in Japan. | journal=Med Mycol J | year= 2015 | volume= 56 | issue= 1 | pages= E1-5 | pmid=25855021 | doi=10.3314/mmj.56.E1 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25855021  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23176858">{{cite journal| author=CEDEF| title=[Item 87--Mucocutaneous bacterial infections]. | journal=Ann Dermatol Venereol | year= 2012 | volume= 139 | issue= 11 Suppl | pages= A32-9 | pmid=23176858 | doi=10.1016/j.annder.2012.01.002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23176858  }} </ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 200px; background: #4479BA; text-align: center;"| {{fontcolor|#FFF|Disease}}
! style="width: 200px; background: #4479BA; text-align: center;"| {{fontcolor|#FFF|Features}}
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Impetigo]] 
|
*It commonly presents with pimple-like lesions surrounded by [[erythematous]] [[skin]]. Lesions are [[pustules]], filled with [[pus]], which then break down over 4-6 days and form a thick crust. It's often associated with insect bites, cuts, and other forms of [[trauma]] to the [[skin]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Insect bite]]s
|
* The insect injects [[formic acid]], which can cause an immediate [[skin]] reaction often resulting in a [[rash]] and swelling in the injured area, often with formation of [[vesicles]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Kawasaki disease]]
|
* Commonly presents with high and persistent [[fever]], red [[mucous membranes]] in mouth, "[[strawberry tongue]]", [[swollen lymph nodes]] and [[skin rash]] in early disease, with peeling off of the [[skin]] of the [[hands]], [[feet]] and [[genital area]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Measles]]
|
* Commonly presents with high [[fever]], [[coryza]] and [[conjunctivitis]], with observation of [[oral mucosa|oral mucosal]] lesions ([[Koplik's spots]]), followed by widespread [[skin rash]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Monkeypox]]
|
* The presentation is similar to [[smallpox]], although it is often a milder form, with [[fever]], [[headache]], [[myalgia]], [[back pain]], [[swollen lymph nodes]], a general feeling of discomfort, and exhaustion. Within 1 to 3 days (sometimes longer) after the appearance of [[fever]], the patient develops a papular [[rash]], often first on the face. The lesions usually develop through several stages before crusting and falling off.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Rubella]]
|
* Commonly presents with a facial [[rash]] which then spreads to the [[trunk]] and [[limbs]], fading after 3 days, low grade [[fever]], swollen [[glands]], [[joint pain]]s, [[headache]] and [[conjunctivitis]]. The [[rash]] disappears after a few days with no staining or peeling of the [[skin]]. ''[[Forchheimer's sign]]'' occurs in 20% of cases, and is characterized by small, red [[papules]] on the area of the [[soft palate]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|Atypical [[measles]]
|
* The symptoms commonly begin about 7-14 days after infection and present as [[fever]], [[cough]], [[coryza]] and [[conjunctivitis]]. Observation of [[Koplik's spots]] is also a characteristic finding in measles.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Coxsackievirus]]
|
* The most commonly caused disease is the [[Coxsackie A]] disease, presenting as ''hand, foot and mouth disease''. It may be [[asymptomatic]] or cause mild [[symptoms]], or it may produce [[fever]] and painful [[blisters]] in the mouth ([[herpangina]]), on the palms and fingers of the hand, or on the soles of the feet. There can also be [[blisters]] in the [[throat]]  or above the [[tonsils]]. Adults can also be affected. The [[rash]], which can appear several days after high temperature and painful sore throat, can be itchy and painful, especially on the hands/fingers and bottom of feet.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Acne]]
|
* It is typical of teenagers, usually appears on the [[face]] and upper neck, but the [[chest]], [[human back|back]] and [[shoulder]]s may have [[acne]] as well. The upper [[arm]]s can also have [[acne]], but lesions found there are often [[keratosis pilaris]], not [[acne]]. The typical [[acne]] lesions are [[comedones]] and [[inflammatory]] [[papules]], [[pustules]], and [[nodules]]. Some of the large [[nodules]] were previously called "[[cyst]]s"
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Syphilis]]
|It commonly presents with gneralized systemic [[symptoms]] such as [[malaise]], [[fatigue]], [[headache]] and [[fever]]. [[Skin]] eruptions may be subtle and [[asymptomatic]] It is classically described as:
* Non-pruritic bilateral symmetrical mucocutaneous [[rash]]
* Non-tender regional [[lymphadenopathy]]
* Condylomata lata and
* Patchy [[alopecia]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Molluscum contagiosum]]
|
* The lesions are commonly flesh-colored, dome-shaped, and pearly in appearance. They are often 1-5 millimeters in diameter, with a dimpled center. Generally not painful, but they may itch or become irritated. Picking or scratching the lesions may lead to further [[infection]] or scarring. In about 10% of the cases, [[eczema]] develops around the lesions. They may occasionally be complicated by secondary [[bacterial infections]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Mononucleosis]]
|
* Common [[symptoms]] include low-grade [[fever]] without [[chills]], [[sore throat]], white patches on [[tonsils]] and back of the throat, [[muscle weakness]] and sometime extreme [[fatigue]], tender [[lymphadenopathy]], [[petechial hemorrhage]] and [[skin rash]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|Toxic [[erythema]]
|
* It is a common [[rash]] in infants, with clustered and [[vesicular]] appearance.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Rat-bite fever]]
|
* It commonly presents with [[fever]], [[chills]], open sore at the site of the bite and [[rash]], which may show red or purple plaques.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Parvovirus B19]]
|
*The [[rash]] of fifth disease is typically described as "slapped cheeks," with [[erythema]] across the cheeks and sparing the nasolabial folds, forehead, and mouth.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Cytomegalovirus]]
|
* The common [[symptoms]] include [[sore throat]], swollen [[lymph nodes]], [[fever]], [[headache]], [[fatigue]], [[weakness]], [[muscle pain]]  and [[loss of appetite]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Scarlet fever]]
|
* It commonly includes [[fever]], punctate red [[macules]] on the hard and soft [[palate]] and [[uvula]] ([[Forchheimer's spots]]), bright red [[tongue]] with a "strawberry" appearance, [[sore throat]] and [[headache]] and [[lymphadenopathy]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Rocky Mountain spotted fever]]
|
* The [[symptoms]] may include [[maculopapular rash]], [[petechial rash]], [[abdominal pain]] and [[joint pain]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Stevens-Johnson syndrome]]
|
* The [[symptoms]] may include [[fever]], [[sore throat]]  and [[fatigue]]. Commonly presents [[ulcers]] and other lesions in the [[mucous membranes]], almost always in the [[mouth]] and lips but also in the genital and anal regions. Those in the mouth are usually extremely painful and reduce the patient's ability to eat or drink. [[Conjunctivitis]] of the eyes occurs in about 30% of children. A [[rash]] of round lesions about an inch across, may arise on the face, trunk, arms and legs, and soles of the feet, but usually not on the scalp.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Varicella-zoster virus]]
|
* It commonly starts as a painful [[rash]] on one side of the face or body. The [[rash]] forms blisters that typically scab over in 7-10 days and clears up within 2-4 weeks.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Chickenpox]]
|
* It commonly starts with [[conjunctival]] and catarrhal [[symptoms]] and then characteristic spots appearing in two or three waves, mainly on the body and head, rather than the hands, becoming itchy raw pox (small open sores which heal mostly without scarring). Touching the fluid from a [[chickenpox]] blister can also spread the disease.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Meningococcemia]]
|
* It commonly presents with [[rash]], [[petechiae]], [[headache]], [[confusion]], and [[stiff neck]], high [[fever]], mental status changes, [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]].
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Rickettsialpox|Rickettsial pox]]
|
* The first [[symptom]] is commonly a bump formed by a mite-bite, eventually resulting in a black, crusty scab. Many of the [[symptoms]] are [[flu]]-like including [[fever]], [[chills]], [[weakness]] and [[muscle pain]] but the most distinctive [[symptom]] is the [[rash]] that breaks out, spanning the person's entire body.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|[[Meningitis]]
|
* It commonly presents with [[headache]], [[nuchal rigidity]], [[fever]], [[petechiae]] and [[altered mental status]].
|}
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
'''Incidence'''
Kawasaki disease is most commonly found in children under 5 years of age. It is a common cause of acquired childhood [[heart disease]] in the United States of America<ref name=>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/kawasaki/about.html |title=About Kawasaki Disease &#124; Kawasaki Disease &#124; CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>. The incidence in the USA is 9-20 per 100000<ref name=>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/kawasaki/about.html |title=About Kawasaki Disease &#124; Kawasaki Disease &#124; CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>.
It has been reported in over 60 countries. It has the highest [[incidence]] in North-East Asia esp. Japan and South Korea. Japan has been conducting nationwide surveys to evaluate the incidence of Kawasaki disease every two years since 1970. The 24th nationwide survey<ref name="pmid30786118">{{cite journal| author=Makino N, Nakamura Y, Yashiro M, Kosami K, Matsubara Y, Ae R | display-authors=etal| title=Nationwide epidemiologic survey of Kawasaki disease in Japan, 2015-2016. | journal=Pediatr Int | year= 2019 | volume= 61 | issue= 4 | pages= 397-403 | pmid=30786118 | doi=10.1111/ped.13809 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30786118  }} </ref> was conducted in 2017 to evaluate the incidence of Kawasaki disease for the years 2015 and 2016. The incidence was found to be 240 per 100000 for girls and 330 per 100000 for boys.
'''Case mortality'''
Up to 25% of untreated KD cases and 5% of cases treated with IVIG develop cardiac complications such as coronary artery aneurysms. These can be fatal.
'''Age'''
incidence is highest in children <5 years old. Although rarely, KD can occur in adults too. 
'''Race'''
The Asians and South Koreans are most prone to developing KD.
'''Gender'''
Males are 150% more likely than females to develop KD.
'''Regions'''
KD can be found worldwide, but Japan and South Korea have reported the highest incidence of KD.
==Risk Factors==
Several risk factors have been identified <ref name=>https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kawasaki-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20354598</ref>:
*Age- It is most common in children below 5 years of age.
*Sex- males are more at risk as compared to females.
*Ethnicity- Pacific Islanders and Asians (especially common in Japanese and South Koreans).
==Screening==
No specific tests exist to diagnose or screen Kawasaki disease<ref name=>https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kawasaki-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20354598</ref>.
Patients with Kawasaki disease should be screened for coronary artery lesions using imaging techniques such as 2D-Echocardiography.
==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis==
'''Natural History'''
Kawasaki disease is a condition often found in children below five years of age. It has an excellent even when left untreated with a [[mortality]] of only 2%. It usually resolves on its own. The course of the disease consists of 3 phases<ref name="pmid19851663">{{cite journal| author=Castro PA, Urbano LM, Costa IM| title=[Kawasaki disease]. | journal=An Bras Dermatol | year= 2009 | volume= 84 | issue= 4 | pages= 317-29 | pmid=19851663 | doi=10.1590/s0365-05962009000400002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19851663  }} </ref>-
* '''Acute Febrile Phase'''- It is characterized by high fever, [[desquamation]] of mucous membranes, [[edema]] of hand & feet, and other diagnostic criteria. It usually lasts 1-2 weeks and can include the development of other clinical features such as [[aseptic meningitis]], [[joint pain]]s, [[myocarditis]], and [[hepatic dysfunction]].
*'''Subacute Phase'''-Begins afters 1-2 weeks of the onset of disease and lasts about four weeks. Fever, cervical lymphadenopathy, and [[rash]] resolve. Irritability, conjunctival injection, and [[anorexia]] persist. Coronary artery aneurysms might develop if the disease is untreated. The risk of sudden death is highest in this phase<ref name="pmid9665974">{{cite journal| author=Rowley AH, Shulman ST| title=Kawasaki syndrome. | journal=Clin Microbiol Rev | year= 1998 | volume= 11 | issue= 3 | pages= 405-14 | pmid=9665974 | doi= | pmc=88887 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9665974  }} </ref>. Certain children may also develop neurological symptoms such as [[cerebral infarct]]s, [[encephalopathy]], [[facial nerve block]], etc.
* '''Convalescent Phase'''- Its beginning is marked by the resolution of all clinical signs & symptoms. Normalization of  [[ESR]], which takes about 5-6 weeks from the onset of the disease, marks the end of the convalescent phase.
'''Complications'''
*Most cases resolve without any complications.
*A subset of patients may go on to develop coronary artery aneurysms, diffuse myocarditis, sudden death.
'''Prognosis'''
*KD has a very good prognosis if treated on time. In up to 96% of the patients, the disease resolves without any long term sequelae.
*If left untreated, up to 25% of the patients might develop coronary artery abnormalities.
==Diagnosis==
===History and Physical findings===
The diagnosis of Kawasaki Disease is clinical. The making a diagnosis requires the presence of high-grade fever for five days and four out of five other diagnostic criteria <ref name=> Diagnosis, Treatment, and Long-Term Management of Kawasaki Disease: A Statement for Health Professionals From the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2182</ref>-
*Desquamation of mucous membranes( [[strawberry tongue]])
*Polymorphous rash of hand & feet which can spread towards the trunk
*Cervical lymphadenopathy (more than 15mm in size; often unilateral and unpainful)
*Conjunctivitis
*Edema of hand & feet
[[File: Kawasaki disease.png|frame|left|400px|Image Courtesy of Kim DS.<ref name="pmid17191303">{{cite journal| author=Kim DS| title=Kawasaki disease. | journal=Yonsei Med J | year= 2006 | volume= 47 | issue= 6 | pages= 759-72 | pmid=17191303 | doi=10.3349/ymj.2006.47.6.759 | pmc=2687814 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17191303  }} </ref><ref>https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/</ref>
(A) Bilateral, non-exudative conjunctival injection with perilimbal sparing. (B) Strawberry tongue and bright red, swollen lips with vertical cracking and bleeding. (C) Erythematous rash involving perineum. (D) Erythema of the palms, which is often accompanied by painful, brawny edema of the dorsae of the hands. (E) Erythema of the soles, and swelling dorsa of the feet. (F) Desquamation of the fingers. (G) Erythema and induration at the site of a previous vaccination with Bacille Calmette-Gurin (BCG). (H) Perianal erythematous desquamation]]
<br style="clear:left">
===Labs and Imaging===


=== Physiology ===
Though labs and imaging do not play a direct role in the diagnosis of KD, they can be used to assess the severity and progress of KD and its complications.
'''Laboratory findings-'''
* [[Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate]] and [[C-Reactive Protein]] are often elevated.
* [[CBC]] shows a picture of [[Normocytic Anaemia]].
* [[Liver function tests]](LFTs) might be elevated and [[Serum Albumin]] low if Hepatic dysfunction is present.


=== Pathogenesis ===
'''Imaging'''


==Genetics==
*[[Echocardiography]] might show coronary artery aneurysms, calcification & cardiac ventricular dysfunction. It is the imaging study of choice in the acute phase of KD<ref name="pmid17434612">{{cite journal| author=Mavrogeni S, Papadopoulos G, Karanasios E, Cokkinos DV| title=How to image Kawasaki disease: a validation of different imaging techniques. | journal=Int J Cardiol | year= 2008 | volume= 124 | issue= 1 | pages= 27-31 | pmid=17434612 | doi=10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.02.035 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17434612  }} </ref>.
*[[Ultrasonography]] might show [[gall bladder]] enlargement.
*[[CT]] might show coronary artery abnormalities and thrombi.


==Associated Conditions==
==Treatment==


==Gross Pathology==
[[Intravascular Immunoglobulin]] (IVIG) along with high dose [[Aspirin]] is the standard treatment of Kawasaki disease<ref name="pmid14584002">{{cite journal| author=Oates-Whitehead RM, Baumer JH, Haines L, Love S, Maconochie IK, Gupta A | display-authors=etal| title=Intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of Kawasaki disease in children. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2003 | volume=  | issue= 4 | pages= CD004000 | pmid=14584002 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004000 | pmc=6544780 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14584002  }} </ref>.
Once IVIG is administered, a dramatic improvement in the patient's condition is noted within 24 hours. Although it is most beneficial in the first seven days of the disease, it effectively decreases the chances of development of coronary artery aneurysms<ref name="pmid27633390">{{cite journal| author=Friedman KG, Gauvreau K, Hamaoka-Okamoto A, Tang A, Berry E, Tremoulet AH | display-authors=etal| title=Coronary Artery Aneurysms in Kawasaki Disease: Risk Factors for Progressive Disease and Adverse Cardiac Events in the US Population. | journal=J Am Heart Assoc | year= 2016 | volume= 5 | issue= 9 | pages=  | pmid=27633390 | doi=10.1161/JAHA.116.003289 | pmc=5079009 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27633390  }} </ref> and cardiac abnormalities up to ten days of onset.  This improves the already excellent prognosis of Kawasaki disease.
 
Kawasaki disease is one of the exceptions where high-dose Aspirin can be given in children without worrying about [[Reye syndrome]]. Although it can cause normocytic [[anaemia]]<ref name="pmid26658843">{{cite journal| author=Kuo HC, Lo MH, Hsieh KS, Guo MM, Huang YH| title=High-Dose Aspirin is Associated with Anemia and Does Not Confer Benefit to Disease Outcomes in Kawasaki Disease. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2015 | volume= 10 | issue= 12 | pages= e0144603 | pmid=26658843 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0144603 | pmc=4686074 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26658843  }} </ref> and many physicians disagree with its use<ref name="pmid23613695">{{cite journal| author=Lee G, Lee SE, Hong YM, Sohn S| title=Is high-dose aspirin necessary in the acute phase of Kawasaki disease? | journal=Korean Circ J | year= 2013 | volume= 43 | issue= 3 | pages= 182-6 | pmid=23613695 | doi=10.4070/kcj.2013.43.3.182 | pmc=3629244 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23613695  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28079513">{{cite journal| author=Amarilyo G, Koren Y, Brik Simon D, Bar-Meir M, Bahat H, Helou MH | display-authors=etal| title=High-dose aspirin for Kawasaki disease: outdated myth or effective aid? | journal=Clin Exp Rheumatol | year= 2017 | volume= 35 Suppl 103 | issue= 1 | pages= 209-212 | pmid=28079513 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28079513  }} </ref>, the current guidelines recommend its use.  It should be started as soon as possible and can be continued up to two months after the resolution of the disease. It is started at a high dose and then continued at low-dose after the resolution of [[fever]]. Aspirin prevents the development of any complication from [[hypercoagubility]] of the blood.


==Microscopic Pathology==
Most of the cases respond well to combined therapy with IVIG & Aspirin. However, 15-20 % of the cases are resistant and show inadequate response to this treatment. In such cases, treatment with steroids can be tried. It has been found that [[steroids]] hasten the resolution of the disease; shorten the hospital stay and also help prevent [[coronary artery]] complications<ref name="pmid29105310">{{cite journal| author=Miura M| title=Role of glucocorticoids in Kawasaki disease. | journal=Int J Rheum Dis | year= 2018 | volume= 21 | issue= 1 | pages= 70-75 | pmid=29105310 | doi=10.1111/1756-185X.13209 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29105310  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28129459">{{cite journal| author=Wardle AJ, Connolly GM, Seager MJ, Tulloh RM| title=Corticosteroids for the treatment of Kawasaki disease in children. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2017 | volume= 1 | issue=  | pages= CD011188 | pmid=28129459 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011188.pub2 | pmc=6464937 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28129459  }} </ref>.


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 14:35, 27 June 2020

"sandbox:LR"


Template:Kawasaki Syndrome

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:

Overview

Kawasaki disease, also known as lymph node syndrome, mucocutaneous node disease, infantile polyarteritis, and Kawasaki syndrome, is a poorly understood self-limited vasculitis that affects many organs, including the skin, mucous membranes, lymph nodes, blood vessel walls, and the heart. There is no evidence that Kawasaki disease is contagious. It was first described in 1967 by Dr. Tomisaku Kawasaki in Japan[1]. Kawasaki disease is predominantly a disease of young children, with 80% of patients younger than 5 years of age. Additional risk factors in the United States include the Asian race and male sex. Kawasaki disease can cause vasculitic changes (inflammation of blood vessels) in the coronary arteries and subsequent coronary artery aneurysms( reported in about 25% of cases). Common symptoms of Kawasaki disease include high-grade fever, red eyes, bright red and cracked lips, red mucous membranes in the mouth, strawberry tongue, white coating on the tongue or prominent red bumps (papillae) on the back of the tongue, red palms of the hands and soles of the feet, swollen hands, and feet, and rash. Echocardiography can be used to detect coronary artery dilatations and aneurysms. Intravenous immunoglobulin(IVIG) and aspirin are used to treat Kawasaki disease.

Historical Perspective

The first case of Kawasaki disease was seen at a Red Cross Hospital in a suburb of Tokyo,Japan in 1961 by Tomisaku Kawasaki, a Japanese pediatrician[2]. He published his first case report in 1967 in the Japanese language. He founded the Kawasaki Disease Research Center in 1990. He expired on 14 June 2020 at the age of 95.

Initially, it was thought to be a self-limiting disease without any long term side effects. In the late '60s, Dr Noboru Tanaka and Dr Takajiro Yamamoto contested against this assumption based on their own experiences. In 1970, the first Japanese Nationwide Survey of the disease was done and it included a question regarding the cardiac sequelae of KD. This helped in confirming the suspicions of Dr Tanaka and Dr Yamamoto[3].

The Committee on Infectious Diseases of the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended IVIG as a therapy for kids with KD in 1988[4]. Since then it has become the standard of care for the disease.

Classification

Kawasaki Disease can be classified as typical and atypical.

Typical cases fulfill the clinical diagnostic criteria.

Atypical or Incomplete Kawasaki disease cases are the ones that do not completely fulfill the clinical diagnostic criteria but have atypical clinical findings such as renal impairment[5]. These cases are more common in young infants rather than older children. This makes diagnosing such cases imperative.

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of Kawasaki disease is not well understood.

Most of the current theories are of immunological origin. It is primarily a necrotizing inflammation of the medium-sized blood vessels affecting multiple organ systems. This can lead to various complications such as pericarditis, pneumonitis, myocarditis, aseptic meningitis, coronary artery aneurysms, etc. It leads to chronic inflammation of blood vessels which can evolve into stenosis as well as aneurysms. On microscopic analysis, ciliated bronchial epithelial cells frequently show intracytoplasmic inclusion-bodies.

Some believe that infectious agents combined with genetic predisposition lead to the development of Kawasaki Disease[6]. But, the research in this direction has been controversial.

Causes

The etiology of Kawasaki disease remains unclear[7]. A number of theories have been proposed suggesting various bacteria, viruses, and environmental factors as the trigger for the immune response in genetically susceptible individuals[8]. However, none of these theories have been proven to date. While genetic predisposition has been observed in Kawasaki disease, the pattern of inheritance is unclear. The children, as well as the siblings of Kawasaki disease patients, are at an increased risk of developing the disease. One of the genes implicated in the pathogenesis of Kawasaki disease is the ITPKC gene[9]. It codes for the enzyme Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 3-kinase C (ITPKC), which is responsible for the negative regulation of T-cell activation. Polymorphisms of this gene lead to varying levels of potential for T-lymphocyte activation in different individuals.

Differentiating Kawasaki disease from other diseases

Different rash-like conditions can be confused with Kawasaki Disease and are thus included in its differential diagnosis. The various conditions that should be differentiated from Kawasaki Disease include:[10][11][12][13][14][15][16]


Disease Features
Impetigo 
  • It commonly presents with pimple-like lesions surrounded by erythematous skin. Lesions are pustules, filled with pus, which then break down over 4-6 days and form a thick crust. It's often associated with insect bites, cuts, and other forms of trauma to the skin.
Insect bites
  • The insect injects formic acid, which can cause an immediate skin reaction often resulting in a rash and swelling in the injured area, often with formation of vesicles.
Kawasaki disease
Measles
Monkeypox
  • The presentation is similar to smallpox, although it is often a milder form, with fever, headache, myalgia, back pain, swollen lymph nodes, a general feeling of discomfort, and exhaustion. Within 1 to 3 days (sometimes longer) after the appearance of fever, the patient develops a papular rash, often first on the face. The lesions usually develop through several stages before crusting and falling off.
Rubella
Atypical measles
Coxsackievirus
  • The most commonly caused disease is the Coxsackie A disease, presenting as hand, foot and mouth disease. It may be asymptomatic or cause mild symptoms, or it may produce fever and painful blisters in the mouth (herpangina), on the palms and fingers of the hand, or on the soles of the feet. There can also be blisters in the throat or above the tonsils. Adults can also be affected. The rash, which can appear several days after high temperature and painful sore throat, can be itchy and painful, especially on the hands/fingers and bottom of feet.
Acne
Syphilis It commonly presents with gneralized systemic symptoms such as malaise, fatigue, headache and fever. Skin eruptions may be subtle and asymptomatic It is classically described as:
Molluscum contagiosum
  • The lesions are commonly flesh-colored, dome-shaped, and pearly in appearance. They are often 1-5 millimeters in diameter, with a dimpled center. Generally not painful, but they may itch or become irritated. Picking or scratching the lesions may lead to further infection or scarring. In about 10% of the cases, eczema develops around the lesions. They may occasionally be complicated by secondary bacterial infections.
Mononucleosis
Toxic erythema
  • It is a common rash in infants, with clustered and vesicular appearance.
Rat-bite fever
  • It commonly presents with fever, chills, open sore at the site of the bite and rash, which may show red or purple plaques.
Parvovirus B19
  • The rash of fifth disease is typically described as "slapped cheeks," with erythema across the cheeks and sparing the nasolabial folds, forehead, and mouth.
Cytomegalovirus
Scarlet fever
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Stevens-Johnson syndrome
  • The symptoms may include fever, sore throat and fatigue. Commonly presents ulcers and other lesions in the mucous membranes, almost always in the mouth and lips but also in the genital and anal regions. Those in the mouth are usually extremely painful and reduce the patient's ability to eat or drink. Conjunctivitis of the eyes occurs in about 30% of children. A rash of round lesions about an inch across, may arise on the face, trunk, arms and legs, and soles of the feet, but usually not on the scalp.
Varicella-zoster virus
  • It commonly starts as a painful rash on one side of the face or body. The rash forms blisters that typically scab over in 7-10 days and clears up within 2-4 weeks.
Chickenpox
  • It commonly starts with conjunctival and catarrhal symptoms and then characteristic spots appearing in two or three waves, mainly on the body and head, rather than the hands, becoming itchy raw pox (small open sores which heal mostly without scarring). Touching the fluid from a chickenpox blister can also spread the disease.
Meningococcemia
Rickettsial pox
Meningitis

Epidemiology and Demographics

Incidence

Kawasaki disease is most commonly found in children under 5 years of age. It is a common cause of acquired childhood heart disease in the United States of America[17]. The incidence in the USA is 9-20 per 100000[18]. It has been reported in over 60 countries. It has the highest incidence in North-East Asia esp. Japan and South Korea. Japan has been conducting nationwide surveys to evaluate the incidence of Kawasaki disease every two years since 1970. The 24th nationwide survey[19] was conducted in 2017 to evaluate the incidence of Kawasaki disease for the years 2015 and 2016. The incidence was found to be 240 per 100000 for girls and 330 per 100000 for boys.

Case mortality

Up to 25% of untreated KD cases and 5% of cases treated with IVIG develop cardiac complications such as coronary artery aneurysms. These can be fatal.

Age

incidence is highest in children <5 years old. Although rarely, KD can occur in adults too.

Race

The Asians and South Koreans are most prone to developing KD.

Gender

Males are 150% more likely than females to develop KD.

Regions

KD can be found worldwide, but Japan and South Korea have reported the highest incidence of KD.

Risk Factors

Several risk factors have been identified [20]:

  • Age- It is most common in children below 5 years of age.
  • Sex- males are more at risk as compared to females.
  • Ethnicity- Pacific Islanders and Asians (especially common in Japanese and South Koreans).

Screening

No specific tests exist to diagnose or screen Kawasaki disease[21].

Patients with Kawasaki disease should be screened for coronary artery lesions using imaging techniques such as 2D-Echocardiography.

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Natural History

Kawasaki disease is a condition often found in children below five years of age. It has an excellent even when left untreated with a mortality of only 2%. It usually resolves on its own. The course of the disease consists of 3 phases[22]-

  • Acute Febrile Phase- It is characterized by high fever, desquamation of mucous membranes, edema of hand & feet, and other diagnostic criteria. It usually lasts 1-2 weeks and can include the development of other clinical features such as aseptic meningitis, joint pains, myocarditis, and hepatic dysfunction.
  • Subacute Phase-Begins afters 1-2 weeks of the onset of disease and lasts about four weeks. Fever, cervical lymphadenopathy, and rash resolve. Irritability, conjunctival injection, and anorexia persist. Coronary artery aneurysms might develop if the disease is untreated. The risk of sudden death is highest in this phase[23]. Certain children may also develop neurological symptoms such as cerebral infarcts, encephalopathy, facial nerve block, etc.
  • Convalescent Phase- Its beginning is marked by the resolution of all clinical signs & symptoms. Normalization of ESR, which takes about 5-6 weeks from the onset of the disease, marks the end of the convalescent phase.

Complications

  • Most cases resolve without any complications.
  • A subset of patients may go on to develop coronary artery aneurysms, diffuse myocarditis, sudden death.

Prognosis

  • KD has a very good prognosis if treated on time. In up to 96% of the patients, the disease resolves without any long term sequelae.
  • If left untreated, up to 25% of the patients might develop coronary artery abnormalities.

Diagnosis

History and Physical findings

The diagnosis of Kawasaki Disease is clinical. The making a diagnosis requires the presence of high-grade fever for five days and four out of five other diagnostic criteria [24]-

  • Desquamation of mucous membranes( strawberry tongue)
  • Polymorphous rash of hand & feet which can spread towards the trunk
  • Cervical lymphadenopathy (more than 15mm in size; often unilateral and unpainful)
  • Conjunctivitis
  • Edema of hand & feet
Image Courtesy of Kim DS.[25][26] (A) Bilateral, non-exudative conjunctival injection with perilimbal sparing. (B) Strawberry tongue and bright red, swollen lips with vertical cracking and bleeding. (C) Erythematous rash involving perineum. (D) Erythema of the palms, which is often accompanied by painful, brawny edema of the dorsae of the hands. (E) Erythema of the soles, and swelling dorsa of the feet. (F) Desquamation of the fingers. (G) Erythema and induration at the site of a previous vaccination with Bacille Calmette-Gurin (BCG). (H) Perianal erythematous desquamation


Labs and Imaging

Though labs and imaging do not play a direct role in the diagnosis of KD, they can be used to assess the severity and progress of KD and its complications.

Laboratory findings-

Imaging

  • Echocardiography might show coronary artery aneurysms, calcification & cardiac ventricular dysfunction. It is the imaging study of choice in the acute phase of KD[27].
  • Ultrasonography might show gall bladder enlargement.
  • CT might show coronary artery abnormalities and thrombi.

Treatment

Intravascular Immunoglobulin (IVIG) along with high dose Aspirin is the standard treatment of Kawasaki disease[28]. Once IVIG is administered, a dramatic improvement in the patient's condition is noted within 24 hours. Although it is most beneficial in the first seven days of the disease, it effectively decreases the chances of development of coronary artery aneurysms[29] and cardiac abnormalities up to ten days of onset. This improves the already excellent prognosis of Kawasaki disease.

Kawasaki disease is one of the exceptions where high-dose Aspirin can be given in children without worrying about Reye syndrome. Although it can cause normocytic anaemia[30] and many physicians disagree with its use[31][32], the current guidelines recommend its use. It should be started as soon as possible and can be continued up to two months after the resolution of the disease. It is started at a high dose and then continued at low-dose after the resolution of fever. Aspirin prevents the development of any complication from hypercoagubility of the blood.

Most of the cases respond well to combined therapy with IVIG & Aspirin. However, 15-20 % of the cases are resistant and show inadequate response to this treatment. In such cases, treatment with steroids can be tried. It has been found that steroids hasten the resolution of the disease; shorten the hospital stay and also help prevent coronary artery complications[33][34].

References

  1. Kawasaki T (1967). "[Acute febrile mucocutaneous syndrome with lymphoid involvement with specific desquamation of the fingers and toes in children]". Arerugi. 16 (3): 178–222. PMID 6062087.
  2. "Kawasaki Syndrome | CDC".
  3. Burns JC, Kushner HI, Bastian JF, Shike H, Shimizu C, Matsubara T; et al. (2000). "Kawasaki disease: A brief history". Pediatrics. 106 (2): E27. doi:10.1542/peds.106.2.e27. PMID 10920183.
  4. American Academy of Pediatrics. Kawasaki disease. In: Peter G, ed. 1988 Red Book: Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 21st ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 1988:251–254
  5. Diagnosis, Treatment, and Long-Term Management of Kawasaki Disease: A Statement for Health Professionals From the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2182
  6. Rowley AH, Shulman ST (2018). "The Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of Kawasaki Disease". Front Pediatr. 6: 374. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00374. PMC 6298241. PMID 30619784.
  7. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kawasaki-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20354598
  8. Rowley AH (2011). "Kawasaki disease: novel insights into etiology and genetic susceptibility". Annu Rev Med. 62: 69–77. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-042409-151944. PMC 3021097. PMID 20690826.
  9. Onouchi Y, Gunji T, Burns JC, Shimizu C, Newburger JW, Yashiro M; et al. (2008). "ITPKC functional polymorphism associated with Kawasaki disease susceptibility and formation of coronary artery aneurysms". Nat Genet. 40 (1): 35–42. doi:10.1038/ng.2007.59. PMC 2876982. PMID 18084290.
  10. Hartman-Adams H, Banvard C, Juckett G (2014). "Impetigo: diagnosis and treatment". Am Fam Physician. 90 (4): 229–35. PMID 25250996.
  11. Mehta N, Chen KK, Kroumpouzos G (2016). "Skin disease in pregnancy: The approach of the obstetric medicine physician". Clin Dermatol. 34 (3): 320–6. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2016.02.003. PMID 27265069.
  12. Moore, Zack S; Seward, Jane F; Lane, J Michael (2006). "Smallpox". The Lancet. 367 (9508): 425–435. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68143-9. ISSN 0140-6736.
  13. Ibrahim F, Khan T, Pujalte GG (2015). "Bacterial Skin Infections". Prim Care. 42 (4): 485–99. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2015.08.001. PMID 26612370.
  14. Ramoni S, Boneschi V, Cusini M (2016). "Syphilis as "the great imitator": a case of impetiginoid syphiloderm". Int J Dermatol. 55 (3): e162–3. doi:10.1111/ijd.13072. PMID 26566601.
  15. Kimura U, Yokoyama K, Hiruma M, Kano R, Takamori K, Suga Y (2015). "Tinea faciei caused by Trichophyton mentagrophytes (molecular type Arthroderma benhamiae ) mimics impetigo : a case report and literature review of cases in Japan". Med Mycol J. 56 (1): E1–5. doi:10.3314/mmj.56.E1. PMID 25855021.
  16. CEDEF (2012). "[Item 87--Mucocutaneous bacterial infections]". Ann Dermatol Venereol. 139 (11 Suppl): A32–9. doi:10.1016/j.annder.2012.01.002. PMID 23176858.
  17. "About Kawasaki Disease | Kawasaki Disease | CDC".
  18. "About Kawasaki Disease | Kawasaki Disease | CDC".
  19. Makino N, Nakamura Y, Yashiro M, Kosami K, Matsubara Y, Ae R; et al. (2019). "Nationwide epidemiologic survey of Kawasaki disease in Japan, 2015-2016". Pediatr Int. 61 (4): 397–403. doi:10.1111/ped.13809. PMID 30786118.
  20. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kawasaki-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20354598
  21. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kawasaki-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20354598
  22. Castro PA, Urbano LM, Costa IM (2009). "[Kawasaki disease]". An Bras Dermatol. 84 (4): 317–29. doi:10.1590/s0365-05962009000400002. PMID 19851663.
  23. Rowley AH, Shulman ST (1998). "Kawasaki syndrome". Clin Microbiol Rev. 11 (3): 405–14. PMC 88887. PMID 9665974.
  24. Diagnosis, Treatment, and Long-Term Management of Kawasaki Disease: A Statement for Health Professionals From the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2182
  25. Kim DS (2006). "Kawasaki disease". Yonsei Med J. 47 (6): 759–72. doi:10.3349/ymj.2006.47.6.759. PMC 2687814. PMID 17191303.
  26. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/
  27. Mavrogeni S, Papadopoulos G, Karanasios E, Cokkinos DV (2008). "How to image Kawasaki disease: a validation of different imaging techniques". Int J Cardiol. 124 (1): 27–31. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.02.035. PMID 17434612.
  28. Oates-Whitehead RM, Baumer JH, Haines L, Love S, Maconochie IK, Gupta A; et al. (2003). "Intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of Kawasaki disease in children". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD004000. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004000. PMC 6544780 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 14584002.
  29. Friedman KG, Gauvreau K, Hamaoka-Okamoto A, Tang A, Berry E, Tremoulet AH; et al. (2016). "Coronary Artery Aneurysms in Kawasaki Disease: Risk Factors for Progressive Disease and Adverse Cardiac Events in the US Population". J Am Heart Assoc. 5 (9). doi:10.1161/JAHA.116.003289. PMC 5079009. PMID 27633390.
  30. Kuo HC, Lo MH, Hsieh KS, Guo MM, Huang YH (2015). "High-Dose Aspirin is Associated with Anemia and Does Not Confer Benefit to Disease Outcomes in Kawasaki Disease". PLoS One. 10 (12): e0144603. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144603. PMC 4686074. PMID 26658843.
  31. Lee G, Lee SE, Hong YM, Sohn S (2013). "Is high-dose aspirin necessary in the acute phase of Kawasaki disease?". Korean Circ J. 43 (3): 182–6. doi:10.4070/kcj.2013.43.3.182. PMC 3629244. PMID 23613695.
  32. Amarilyo G, Koren Y, Brik Simon D, Bar-Meir M, Bahat H, Helou MH; et al. (2017). "High-dose aspirin for Kawasaki disease: outdated myth or effective aid?". Clin Exp Rheumatol. 35 Suppl 103 (1): 209–212. PMID 28079513.
  33. Miura M (2018). "Role of glucocorticoids in Kawasaki disease". Int J Rheum Dis. 21 (1): 70–75. doi:10.1111/1756-185X.13209. PMID 29105310.
  34. Wardle AJ, Connolly GM, Seager MJ, Tulloh RM (2017). "Corticosteroids for the treatment of Kawasaki disease in children". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 1: CD011188. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011188.pub2. PMC 6464937. PMID 28129459.