COVID-19 associated pediatric complications
|
COVID-19 Microchapters |
|
Diagnosis |
|---|
|
Treatment |
|
Case Studies |
|
COVID-19 associated pediatric complications On the Web |
|
American Roentgen Ray Society Images of COVID-19 associated pediatric complications |
|
Risk calculators and risk factors for COVID-19 associated pediatric complications |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Harmeet Kharoud M.D.[2]; Asra Firdous, M.B.B.S.[3] Neepa Shah, M.B.B.S.[4]; Abdelrahman Ibrahim Abushouk, MD[5]
Overview
Cases of COVID-19 have been reported in children, yet the prevalence is lower than adults. It ranges from asymptomatic, mild cases to multisystem inflammatory syndrome. As asymptomatic patients do not get tested for COVID-19 and are potential carriers for viral transmission, high clinical suspicion is required to prevent such transmissions to a population at risk of developing severe disease. A pediatrician should be cautious to exclude other causes of respiratory illnesses like seasonal influenza before any diagnostic tests. As no effective treatment has been approved by the FDA yet, the main goal of managing patients with COVID-19 is to treat the symptoms, provide supportive care, prevent and treat complications, and provide organ function support.
Historical Perspective
Classification
- Asymptomatic presentation
- Children present with no clinical signs or symptoms with normal chest imaging.
- Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection 4% of children were asymptomatic.
- According to one study 14.2% of children were asymptomatic. Another study showed 18% of asymptomatic children with COVID-19.
- Mild Disease
- Moderate
- Severe
- Children present with dyspnea, central cyanosis, hypoxia.[1]
- Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection 5% of children had a severe presentation.[1]
- 2.1% of children present with a severe form of COVID-19 disease.
- Children with underlying comorbidities are more susceptible to getting severe COVID-19 disease.
- Critical
- Children present with acute respiratory distress syndrome(ARDS), respiratory failure, shock, or multi-organ dysfunction.[1]
- Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection, 0.6%% of children had a critical presentation.[1]
Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis
- Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by, SARS-CoV-2, a novel coronavirus named for the similarity of its symptoms to those caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome.[2][3]
- Unlike SARS-CoV, transmission of COVID-19 takes place during the prodromal period when those infected are mildly ill and are carrying on with their usual activities. This contributes to the spread of infection.[4][5]
- The virus infects epithelial cells of the lung alveoli by receptor‐mediated endocytosis via the angiotensin‐converting enzyme II (ACE-II) as an entry receptor.[6][7][8]
Tropism
- The virus also relies on the ACE-II receptor not only for host cell entry but also for subsequent viral replication.[9]
- High viral loads have been detected in the lower respiratory tract, suggesting that the virus might have a higher affinity for the epithelium of the lower respiratory tract and indicating a need for repeat testing of the upper or lower respiratory tract samples in the setting of an initial negative result of nasopharyngeal or throat swab in a suspected case.[10]
- ACE-II receptors' presence in the extrapulmonary tissues (heart, kidney, endothelium, and intestine) could also explain the multi-organ dysfunction observed in patients.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]
- ACE-II receptors are also expressed in the oral cavity with a higher level of expression in the tongue than the buccal or gingival tissues. This indicates oral cavity as potentially high risk for SARS-CoV-2 infectious susceptibility.[19]
- ACE-II receptors' high expression on the luminal surface of intestinal epithelial cells suggests that the intestine might also be a major entry site for the virus and that the infection might have been initiated by consuming food from the Wuhan market (the assumed site of the outbreak).[20]
Activation of Host Immune Reponses
- SARS-CoV2 is known to cause a delayed-type I interferon response during the initial phases of infection.
- Infection and viral replication lead to an activation of neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes. Th1/Th17 induced specific antibodies are produced.
- RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS are recognized pathogen associated molecular patterns by endosomal RNA receptors, TLR3 and TLR7 and the cytosolic RNA sensor, RIG-I/MDA5.[21]
- This leads to downstream activation of NF-KB signaling cascade and nuclear translocation of transcription factors, which in turn leads to the production of type 1 interferon pro-inflammatory cytokines.
- Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Inhibits Type I Interferon Production by Interfering with TRIM25-Mediated RIG-I Ubiquitination.
- The main pathogenesis of COVID-19 is severe pneumonia, RNAemia, combined with the incidence of ground-glass opacities, and acute cardiac injury.[22][23]
- As evident from the autopsies of those infected by the SARS-CoV, the extensive lung damage may be caused by multiple factors, such as:
- High initial virus titers[24]
- Increased monocyte, macrophage, and neutrophil infiltration in the lungs[25]
- Elevated levels of serum proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines[26][27][28]
Associated Conditions
- The 3 most common comorbidities in children [29].
- Co-infection with other pathogens were reported in 27% of cases. Some common microorganisms associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in children are:
Causes
- Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).[27][30][31][32]
- SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the large family of viruses known as Coronaviruses (CoV).[33]
Differentiating COVID-19 in Children from other Diseases
COVID-19 disease in children should be differentiated from the following conditions:
- Adenovirus infection
- Chlamydia pneumoniae
- Human metapneumovirus infection
- Influenza
- Mycoplasma pneumonia
- Parainfluenza virus infection
- Respiratory syncytial virus infection
- Rhinovirus infection
- Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-Cov-1)
Epidemiology and Demographics
- Less than 2% of the confirmed positive cases of COVID-19 comprise of children less than 19 years of age[34][35][29][36][37]
Incidence
- Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to CDC from January 22–May 30, the incidence of confirmed cases was 403.6 cases per 100,000 population[38] [29].
- Lowest cumulative incidence being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1) per 100,000 population.
- To accurately calculate the incidence of COVID-19 in children a study called Human Epidemiology and Response to SARS-CoV-2 HEROS led by Dr. Hartet is under process and has started enrolling 6000 healthy children as well as children with asthma, allergies from 2000 U.S families across 11 states.[39]
Prevalence
Prevalence of coronavirus in children is less compared to adults as the number of cases are less and most of the cases are with the mild presentation.[40][41]
ICU and total hospitalization in children
- <9 years of age among 20,458 children[29]
- Total number of all hospitalization is 4.1%
- Total number of ICU admissions is 0.7%
- 10-19 years of age among 49,245 children[29]
- Total number of all hospitalization is 2.5%
- Total number of ICU admissions is 0.4%
| Age | All admissions in the hospital and ICU divided according to associated comorbidity | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <9 years (20458 cases) | All patients (20458) | Among all patients with reported underlying disease (619) | Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (2277) | ||||||
| All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | ||||
| 848/20458 (4.1%) | 141/20458 (0.7%) | 138/619 (22.3%) | 31/619 (5%) | 84/2277(3.7%) | 116/2277 (0.7%) | ||||
| 10-19 years (49245 cases) | All patients (49245) | Among all patients with reported
underlying disease (2076) |
Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (5047) | ||||||
| All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU (2076) | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU (5047) | ICU admissions | ||||
| 1234/49245 (2.5%) | 216/49245 (0.4%) | 309/2076 (14.9%) | 72/2076 (3.5%) | 115/5047 (2.3%) | 17/5047 (0.3%) | ||||
Age
Race
Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native persons have an age-adjusted hospitalization rate approximately 5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons, while non-Hispanic Black persons and Hispanic or Latino persons each have a rate approximately 4.5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons[43]
Gender
- According to the data published by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30[29]
- The cumulative incidence of COVID-19 cases:
- Boys age 0-9 years is 52.5 (1.7%) out of 10,743
- Boys age 10-19 years is 113.4 (3.8%) out of 24,302
- Girls age 0-9 years is 49.7 (1.4%) out of 9,715
- Girls age 10-19 years is 121 (3.7%)out of 24,943
- The cumulative incidence of COVID-19 cases:
Region
- COVID-19 has become a pandemic with current cases around 188 countries.[44]
- The following data is up to 29th June 2020[45]
- The total number of COVID-19 cases in the U.S is 2,534,981.
Risk Factors
- SARS-CoV 2 spreads by respiratory droplets within 6 feet from the infected person.[46]
- Pregnant women with COVID- 19 are at more risk of developing adverse obstetric and perinatal outcomes.[47]
- Most children who were COVID-19 positive were found to have acquired infection from parents and other household contacts.
- For newborn babies testing positive for the COVID-19 could be infected via vertical transmission, breastfeeding, or contact with virus-contaminated surfaces[48]
Breastfeeding
- According to the CDC[49], there is no transmission of the SARS CoV-2 virus from an infected mother to the newborn while breastfeeding. However limited studies are available to yet decide if there is a true transmission risk while breastfeeding.
- CDC advises all mothers who are positive or suspected to be COVID-19 positive to practice precaution like covering the mouth with a face mask, washing hands with soap and water before and after washing hands.
- Bulk RNA-seq profiles from two public databases including The Cancer Genome Atlas TCGA and Functional Annotation of The Mammalian Genome Cap Analysis of Gene Expression FANTOM5 CAGE dataset were collected. Ace-2 receptors are used by the coronavirus to gain entry into the cells. The RNA Sequence database found ACE-2 expression in the breast tissue similar to the expression in the lung tissue.[19]
- However, the current data suggest there is one isolated case reported where the breast milk sample was found to be positive for COVID-19 sample on Day 1 and subsequently negative in the day 3 sample. More research needs to be done to conclude if there is any transmission via breastfeeding[48].
Vertical transmission
- A study by Marzieh Zamaniyan et all [50] discusses about a pregnant women who developed severe pneumonia with 32 weeks of gestation delivered a healthy pre-term baby without COVID-19 symptoms.
- Another study documented a possible vertical transmission as increased levels of neonatal Ig M antibodies were found in 3 cases.[51]
- Seropositivity with IgM antibodies found in neonates needs reflex testing for example - virus neutralization, IgG avidity index, molecular and immunoblotting. A study by Dong E et all[52] discussed decreasing levels of neonatal IgM antibodies in the serum 2 weeks later. So far RT-PCR is the preferred test to docuement for possible vertical transmission.
- Pregnant women with severe COVID-19 pneumonia were found to have placental inflammation which increases the risk for transplacental infection and pre-term births.[48]
- Detection of IgM and IL-6 in neonates serum is used as one of the markers for possible transplacental transmission.
- Some studies which detected the virus hours to days after birth in the nasopharyngeal samples and hence those newborns could have been exposed to the virus after birth via the nosocomial infection.
Screening
- There are no special guidelines guidelines in place for the routine screening for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in children.
- The same clinical and non-clinical features related to COVID-19 being used to screen suspected adults can be used in children and include:[53][54][27]
Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
Complications
- Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MISC-C)
- Exacerbation of the underlying conditions
- Acute Respiratory Distress syndrome
- Sepsis
- Septic shock
- Secondary Bacterial infections.
- Acute Heart Failure
- Myocarditis
- Acute Kidney Injury
A. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)
B. Acute Heart Failure
- Acute Cardiac decompensation have been reported in children due to severe inflammatory state following COVID-19 infection. A case series describe 35 children in 14 centers admitted to PICU for cardiogenic shock, left ventricular dysfunction, and severe inflammatory state.[55]
- Treatent with immunoglobulin is associated with recovery of left ventricular systolic function.[55]
C. Negative effects of lockdown in children
- Children less than 10 years in the school develop very important language, social and developmental traits with the mitigation in place these kids are at risk to develop anxiety, anger, and post-traumatic stress disorder.[56]
- Children whose parents have either suffered economically or have mental health issues are more prone to physical and mental abuse.
- With the schools using digital media to continue classes during mitigation, those kids who are not able to get these devices are suffering from little to no education in this period of lockdown.
- Children of healthcare workers are facing a great deal with change in the environment with a new baby sitter and not being able to interact and hug the parents working in the frontline.
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Study of Choice
In case of clinical suspicion, the best diagnostic test to diagnose COVID-19 infection in children is Reverse-Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved real-time Reverse-Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) as the preferred test for diagnosing COVID-19 in children
- RT-PCR has high specificity and sensitivity of 66-80% in diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infection
- The test is negative during the first 7-10 days of the infection and remains positive for several weeks after the infection subsides
- Swab contamination may produce false-positive results
- High levels of SARS-CoV-2 RNA were obtained in the samples from the upper respiratory tract in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients
- Nasopharyngeal swabs and oropharyngeal swabs or throat swab are the preferred samples for the diagnostic test
- Nasopharyngeal swab is collected in children less than 2 years of age
- A throat swab is preferred for children above 2 years
- Due to the difficulty in obtaining samples and poor cooperation of children, it is advised to use saliva samples to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection
- Saliva samples reportedly showed higher positive rates than Nasopharyngeal swabs in adults. It is quick and non-invasive that decreases the risk of exposure and contamination
- In patients with a high risk of exposure, one negative test result does not exclude the infection. The test should be repeated or lower respiratory tract samples like Bronchoscopic Alveolar Lavage (BAL) should be used as a specimen in such patients
- Due to the increased risk of exposure for both patient and health care worker, bronchoscopy is not recommended to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection
- In patients on mechanical ventilation, bronchoscopic alveolar lavage fluid or endotracheal aspirates can be used
- The virus RNA was also detected in blood and stools specimen
- Real-time Fluorescent RT-PCR is used in children with atypical symptoms
- Alternatively, some researchers suggest using metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) of viral RNA for the diagnosis.
History and Symptoms
- Presentation of COVID-19 is less severe in children as compared to adults. Most of the children are asymptomatic.[57]
- According to CDC, as of April 2, 2020, 1.7% confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in children aged <18 years age among the total number of confirmed cases of COVID-19.
- Illness severity of COVID-19 in children ranges from asymptomatic to critical.
- The incubation period of SARS-CoV-2 varies from 2 to 14 days with most patients developing symptoms 3 to 7 days after exposure.[57]
The common symptoms of COVID-19 infection in children are:
- Fever and Cough are one of the most common symptoms reported in children. One study showed fever is prevalent in 47.5% of children and cough in 41.5% among the 1124 children with COVID-19.According to the CDC, fever, and cough was reported in 56% and 54% of children with COVID 19
- Dyspnea, nasal congestion, pharyngeal erythema, and sore throat are also common presentations in children.
- Gastrointestinal symptoms: The gastrointestinal manifestation in COVID-19 positive children are diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, nausea, and anorexia. Children can present with gastrointestinal symptoms in the absence of respiratory symptoms.
- Cutaneous Findings: The cutaneous findings in COVID-19 positive children range from petechiae to papulovesicular rashes to diffuse urticaria. These appear early in the course of COVID-19 and result secondary to viral replication or circulating cytokines. Many patients with COVID-19 are presenting with chilblains like lesions unrelated to cold. Chilblains are painful or itchy swellings of the toes and fingers, caused by small-vessel inflammation from repeated exposure to cold. A retrospective case series presented 22 children and adolescents with COVID-19 who presented with chillblains lesions. [58][59]
- Neurological manifestation- The presentation of neurological manifestation in children is rare. However, a case report described a rare case of a 6-week old infant with COVID-19 who had 10-15 seconds episodes of upward gaze and bilateral leg stiffening.[60]
- Neonates and Infants with COVID-19 are often asymptomatic or present with fever with or without mild cough and congestion.
Physical Examination
Laboratory Findings
Studies reportedly showed following lab abnormalities in pediatric patients with COVID-19
- Leucocytosis(7.5%) or Leucopenia(16.6%)
- Increased (27.4%) or decreased (24%) neutrophils
- Lymphopenia (12.9%) or Lymphocytosis (11.7%)
- Increased (9.5%) or decreased (3.2%) platelets
- Increased CRP levels (19.3%)
- Increased procalcitonin levels (49.8%)
- Increased liver enzymes (19.2%)
- Increased Serum Creatinine (4%)
- Increased blood urea nitrogen (5%)
- Increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels (29%)
- Increased Creatine kinase levels (21%)
- Increased D-dimer levels (12%)
Electrocardiogram
X-ray
CT scan
CT chest is an important diagnostic modality in pediatric patients with COVID-19. Chest CT scans has reportedly shown higher positive rates in suspected patients than RT-PCR. It has better sensitivity. CT chest and a series of chest X-rays can be used to monitor the progression of the disease. Imaging findings reported in the studies are
- Local patchy shadows (18.7%)
- Bilateral patchy shadows (12.3%)
- Consolidation (33%)
- Ground glass opacities (28%)
- Interstitial abnormalities (1.2%)
- Pleural effusion was reported in a 2-month old child who had a co-infection with RSV along with SARS-CoV-2
Children are at increased risk of radiation and its effects, so CT scans and X-rays should be judiciously used in them. It is advised to perform Pulmonary Ultrasonography (USG) in newborns. It has better sensitivity and is safer than CT scans and Chest X-rays.
MRI
Other Imaging Findings
- To view other imaging findings on COVID-19, click here.
Other Diagnostic Studies
- To view other diagnostic studies for COVID-19, click here.
Treatment
Management of COVID-19 in pediatric patients depends on the severity of symptoms.
- Hospital admission and level of care depend on the clinical presentation, supportive care requirement, underlying comorbidities, and availability of health care facilities at home
- Suspected patients must be isolated at a hospital or home until the diagnosis is excluded
- After confirming the diagnosis, they should be hospitalized and isolated in the wards maintained for pediatric patients with COVID-19
- Critical and severe cases require Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admission and management
As no effective treatment has been approved by the FDA yet, the main goal of managing patients with COVID-19 is to treat the symptoms, provide supportive care, prevent and treat complications, treat underlying diseases and secondary infections, and provide organ function support. Following measures are reported to be crucial in the management of COVID-19[61]
- Bed rest
- Adequate calorie and water intake
- Maintain electrolyte balance and homeostasis
- Maintain airways patency
- Monitor vital signs and SpO2
- Symptomatic treatment and Supportive care
- Routine blood tests to monitor organ functions
- Repeat chest imaging to monitor the progression of the disease
Symptomatic treatment and Supportive Care
Fever should be treated with physical cooling and antipyretics. If the body temperature exceeds 38.5C, antipyretic drugs should be started. Drugs that can be used in children are acetaminophen 10-15 mg/kg and ibuprofen 5-10 mg/kg orally.[61]
Respiratory support
- When the oxygen saturations are low, oxygen therapy should be started using a nasal catheter or mask oxygen[62]
- Alternatively, heated humidified high flow nasal cannula (HHHFNC) can be used to improve oxygenation
- If symptoms of respiratory difficulty persist, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or non-invasive high-frequency ventilation should be considered
- Patients should be started on mechanical ventilation immediately when no improvement occurs or respiratory health is rapidly deteriorating.
Mechanical Ventilation
Low tidal volume mechanical ventilation is preferred to prevent ventilation related lung injury. Criteria for starting mechanical ventilation[61]
- No improvement observed with non-invasive ventilation
OR
- Intolerant to non-invasive ventilation
OR
- Increased airway secretions, severe cough, and hemodynamic instability
Antibiotics
Antibiotics and antifungals help in reducing symptoms and preventing complications of secondary infections[63]
Corticosteroids
Steroids are used in severe cases and to prevent complications[63]. Any of the following criteria must be met before starting corticosteroid therapy in patients with COVID-19[61]. Intravenous methylprednisolone 1-2mg/kg/day used for 3-5 days. Long-term usage is highly discouraged.
- Rapid progression of the disease as documented from chest imaging and development of ARDS
OR
- Patients who develop encephalitis or encephalopathy, hemophagocytic syndrome, and other serious complications
OR
- Patient develops septic shock
OR
- Patient presents with wheezing
Anticoagulation therapy
- Patients with raised D-dimer levels are at increased risk of thrombus formation
- Anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy can be given to prevent this complication
- Low molecular weight Heparin was reportedly used during the early stages.
Convalescent plasma therapy
Evidence suggests the use of plasma therapy in children with exacerbations and severe and critical disease.
Immunoglobulin therapy
- Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) can be used in severe cases[63]
- Dose of 1g/kg/day for 2days or 400mg/kg/day for 8 days is recommended for children
- More studies are required to support its efficacy and safety in children with COVID-19
Antiviral therapy
Following are the experimental drugs that are being considered to treat children with COVID-19[64]. Various clinical trials are being conducted on the efficacy and safety of these drugs in children with COVID-19.
Interferon-alpha
Inhaled interferon-alpha was the most commonly used antiviral in patients with COVID-19. Reports suggest that it helps in decreasing the viral load, alleviating symptoms and shortening the disease course.[65][66]
Remdesivir
- It is a nucleotide analogue that inhibits viral RNA polymerase
- It was effectively used during Ebola, SARS, and MERS outbreaks
- It was effective in-vitro against SARS-CoV-2[67]
- No adverse effects were reported in a newborn treated for Ebola[68]
- Phase III clinical trial is being conducted on the effectiveness of Remdesivir in treating COVID-19 in adults and children above 12 years of age[69]
- FDA has approved the emergency use of Remdesivir in treating hospitalized children with severe disease"Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Issues Emergency Use Authorization for Potential COVID-19 Treatment | FDA".
Favipiravir
- Favipiravir is an RNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor
- In patients above 16 years, reports showed faster viral clearance and higher recovery rate with Favipiravir[70]
- It was effective during Ebola and Influenza outbreak[71]
- The safety and efficacy of Favipiravir are still being debated
- Due to its efficiency in treating SARS, MERS, Ebola, and Influenza,[71] it is being considered as a potential treatment for severely ill children who did not respond to other treatment options[70]
Prevention
Re-opening of schools
- The pandemic which started in China in January 2020 and now is all over the world has had a tremendous effect on the everyday life of many however children are the most affected.
- With the peak of the coronavirus cases being over in many countries like the USA and Europe, there is a dilemma for the school officials about when to reopen schools for children.
- According to the data collected by the CDC[29] and other articles[72][73] children are affected less compared to adults with asymptomatic to mild COVID-19 symptoms.
- The challenge faced by the school committees around the world is to decide between the pros and cons of whether to reopen the school with children facing the emotional toll of the lockdown and quarantine. [74]
The CDC guidelines for re-opening schools are as follows [75]
- These guidelines are to be followed by schools by coordinating with the local health department to know the level of mitigation in your community as the coronavirus cases are increasing.
- Educate the teachers and the parents on signs of coronavirus like dry cough, cold, high fever, and other flu-like symptoms.
- If the child has the above-mentioned symptoms or is in contact with an adult at home having these symptoms or the adult at home has tested positive the child should stay home.
- Teachers, children, and other staff members with the immunocompromised state should be given the option to work from home virtually as they are in the high-risk group.
- Hand hygiene- Soap and water should be provided by the school for students to wash hands frequently for 20 seconds
- If soap and water are not available provide hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol.
- Use a tissue to cover cough/sneeze and wash hands after discarding the tissue safely.
- Cloth face mask is advised for all the school staff and the children except kids younger than 2 years of age or kids with a breathing problem who needs assistance in removing the face mask.
- Signs about COVID 19 should be placed in places frequently visited like the school entrance, cafeteria, and the bathroom.
- Avoid sharing objects and if possible give kids individual supplies.
- Ensure proper ventilation systems are in place, open windows when it's safe and possible.
- Identify small groups of children and try to keep them together with the same teacher.
- Food brought from home is advisable. If not then food should be distributed in the classroom, not the cafeteria.
- Advise students and teachers to limit their exposure to the news stories. It can be overwhelming for the students.
- Encourage the students to talk to anyone they trust or to reach out to teachers to talk when overwhelmed.
- If a child tests positive or is suspected to have COVID-19 the school should arrange special transport for the student separately.
- Inform the local health care department and close contacts if the student tests positive.
- Proper contact tracing, isolation, disinfecting the common places frequently used by the students should be made a priority.
Domestic violence in children
- In this lockdown even though children are affected less compared to adults with COVID -19 that however is not the case when it comes to mental health and safety.
- A study by Silvia Bressan et all [76] reported a sharp increase in pediatric emergency visit due to domestic violence with majority of limb fractures, facial fracture, subdural hematoma and ingestion of caustic cleaning product.
- Increased measures for children's safety and frequent disinfection should be encouraged.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Eastin, Carly; Eastin, Travis (2020). "Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 58 (4): 712–713. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006. ISSN 0736-4679.
- ↑ Lu, Jian; Cui, Jie; Qian, Zhaohui; Wang, Yirong; Zhang, Hong; Duan, Yuange; Wu, Xinkai; Yao, Xinmin; Song, Yuhe; Li, Xiang; Wu, Changcheng; Tang, Xiaolu (2020). "On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2". National Science Review. doi:10.1093/nsr/nwaa036. ISSN 2095-5138.
- ↑ Lu, Roujian; Zhao, Xiang; Li, Juan; Niu, Peihua; Yang, Bo; Wu, Honglong; Wang, Wenling; Song, Hao; Huang, Baoying; Zhu, Na; Bi, Yuhai; Ma, Xuejun; Zhan, Faxian; Wang, Liang; Hu, Tao; Zhou, Hong; Hu, Zhenhong; Zhou, Weimin; Zhao, Li; Chen, Jing; Meng, Yao; Wang, Ji; Lin, Yang; Yuan, Jianying; Xie, Zhihao; Ma, Jinmin; Liu, William J; Wang, Dayan; Xu, Wenbo; Holmes, Edward C; Gao, George F; Wu, Guizhen; Chen, Weijun; Shi, Weifeng; Tan, Wenjie (2020). "Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding". The Lancet. 395 (10224): 565–574. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8. ISSN 0140-6736.
- ↑ Heymann, David L; Shindo, Nahoko (2020). "COVID-19: what is next for public health?". The Lancet. 395 (10224): 542–545. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30374-3. ISSN 0140-6736.
- ↑ Rothe, Camilla; Schunk, Mirjam; Sothmann, Peter; Bretzel, Gisela; Froeschl, Guenter; Wallrauch, Claudia; Zimmer, Thorbjörn; Thiel, Verena; Janke, Christian; Guggemos, Wolfgang; Seilmaier, Michael; Drosten, Christian; Vollmar, Patrick; Zwirglmaier, Katrin; Zange, Sabine; Wölfel, Roman; Hoelscher, Michael (2020). "Transmission of 2019-nCoV Infection from an Asymptomatic Contact in Germany". New England Journal of Medicine. 382 (10): 970–971. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2001468. ISSN 0028-4793.
- ↑ Zhou, Peng; Yang, Xing-Lou; Wang, Xian-Guang; Hu, Ben; Zhang, Lei; Zhang, Wei; Si, Hao-Rui; Zhu, Yan; Li, Bei; Huang, Chao-Lin; Chen, Hui-Dong; Chen, Jing; Luo, Yun; Guo, Hua; Jiang, Ren-Di; Liu, Mei-Qin; Chen, Ying; Shen, Xu-Rui; Wang, Xi; Zheng, Xiao-Shuang; Zhao, Kai; Chen, Quan-Jiao; Deng, Fei; Liu, Lin-Lin; Yan, Bing; Zhan, Fa-Xian; Wang, Yan-Yi; Xiao, Geng-Fu; Shi, Zheng-Li (2020). "A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin". Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ↑ Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, Wang W, Song H, Huang B, Zhu N, Bi Y, Ma X, Zhan F, Wang L, Hu T, Zhou H, Hu Z, Zhou W, Zhao L, Chen J, Meng Y, Wang J, Lin Y, Yuan J, Xie Z, Ma J, Liu WJ, Wang D, Xu W, Holmes EC, Gao GF, Wu G, Chen W, Shi W, Tan W (February 2020). "Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding". Lancet. 395 (10224): 565–574. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8. PMID 32007145 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, Si HR, Zhu Y, Li B, Huang CL, Chen HD, Chen J, Luo Y, Guo H, Jiang RD, Liu MQ, Chen Y, Shen XR, Wang X, Zheng XS, Zhao K, Chen QJ, Deng F, Liu LL, Yan B, Zhan FX, Wang YY, Xiao GF, Shi ZL (February 2020). "A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin". Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7. PMID 32015507 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Zhang, Haibo; Penninger, Josef M.; Li, Yimin; Zhong, Nanshan; Slutsky, Arthur S. (2020). "Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target". Intensive Care Medicine. doi:10.1007/s00134-020-05985-9. ISSN 0342-4642.
- ↑ Chan, Jasper Fuk-Woo; Yuan, Shuofeng; Kok, Kin-Hang; To, Kelvin Kai-Wang; Chu, Hin; Yang, Jin; Xing, Fanfan; Liu, Jieling; Yip, Cyril Chik-Yan; Poon, Rosana Wing-Shan; Tsoi, Hoi-Wah; Lo, Simon Kam-Fai; Chan, Kwok-Hung; Poon, Vincent Kwok-Man; Chan, Wan-Mui; Ip, Jonathan Daniel; Cai, Jian-Piao; Cheng, Vincent Chi-Chung; Chen, Honglin; Hui, Christopher Kim-Ming; Yuen, Kwok-Yung (2020). "A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster". The Lancet. 395 (10223): 514–523. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9. ISSN 0140-6736.
- ↑ Crackower, Michael A.; Sarao, Renu; Oudit, Gavin Y.; Yagil, Chana; Kozieradzki, Ivona; Scanga, Sam E.; Oliveira-dos-Santos, Antonio J.; da Costa, Joan; Zhang, Liyong; Pei, York; Scholey, James; Ferrario, Carlos M.; Manoukian, Armen S.; Chappell, Mark C.; Backx, Peter H.; Yagil, Yoram; Penninger, Josef M. (2002). "Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is an essential regulator of heart function". Nature. 417 (6891): 822–828. doi:10.1038/nature00786. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ↑ Danilczyk, Ursula; Sarao, Renu; Remy, Christine; Benabbas, Chahira; Stange, Gerti; Richter, Andreas; Arya, Sudha; Pospisilik, J. Andrew; Singer, Dustin; Camargo, Simone M. R.; Makrides, Victoria; Ramadan, Tamara; Verrey, Francois; Wagner, Carsten A.; Penninger, Josef M. (2006). "Essential role for collectrin in renal amino acid transport". Nature. 444 (7122): 1088–1091. doi:10.1038/nature05475. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ↑ Gu, Jiang; Gong, Encong; Zhang, Bo; Zheng, Jie; Gao, Zifen; Zhong, Yanfeng; Zou, Wanzhong; Zhan, Jun; Wang, Shenglan; Xie, Zhigang; Zhuang, Hui; Wu, Bingquan; Zhong, Haohao; Shao, Hongquan; Fang, Weigang; Gao, Dongshia; Pei, Fei; Li, Xingwang; He, Zhongpin; Xu, Danzhen; Shi, Xeying; Anderson, Virginia M.; Leong, Anthony S.-Y. (2005). "Multiple organ infection and the pathogenesis of SARS". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 202 (3): 415–424. doi:10.1084/jem.20050828. ISSN 1540-9538.
- ↑ Ding, Yanqing; He, Li; Zhang, Qingling; Huang, Zhongxi; Che, Xiaoyan; Hou, Jinlin; Wang, Huijun; Shen, Hong; Qiu, Liwen; Li, Zhuguo; Geng, Jian; Cai, Junjie; Han, Huixia; Li, Xin; Kang, Wei; Weng, Desheng; Liang, Ping; Jiang, Shibo (2004). "Organ distribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome(SARS) associated coronavirus(SARS-CoV) in SARS patients: implications for pathogenesis and virus transmission pathways". The Journal of Pathology. 203 (2): 622–630. doi:10.1002/path.1560. ISSN 0022-3417.
- ↑ Hamming, I; Timens, W; Bulthuis, MLC; Lely, AT; Navis, GJ; van Goor, H (2004). "Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis". The Journal of Pathology. 203 (2): 631–637. doi:10.1002/path.1570. ISSN 0022-3417.
- ↑ Wang, Dawei; Hu, Bo; Hu, Chang; Zhu, Fangfang; Liu, Xing; Zhang, Jing; Wang, Binbin; Xiang, Hui; Cheng, Zhenshun; Xiong, Yong; Zhao, Yan; Li, Yirong; Wang, Xinghuan; Peng, Zhiyong (2020). "Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China". JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.1585. ISSN 0098-7484.
- ↑ Huang, Chaolin; Wang, Yeming; Li, Xingwang; Ren, Lili; Zhao, Jianping; Hu, Yi; Zhang, Li; Fan, Guohui; Xu, Jiuyang; Gu, Xiaoying; Cheng, Zhenshun; Yu, Ting; Xia, Jiaan; Wei, Yuan; Wu, Wenjuan; Xie, Xuelei; Yin, Wen; Li, Hui; Liu, Min; Xiao, Yan; Gao, Hong; Guo, Li; Xie, Jungang; Wang, Guangfa; Jiang, Rongmeng; Gao, Zhancheng; Jin, Qi; Wang, Jianwei; Cao, Bin (2020). "Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China". The Lancet. 395 (10223): 497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5. ISSN 0140-6736.
- ↑ Guan, Wei-jie; Ni, Zheng-yi; Hu, Yu; Liang, Wen-hua; Ou, Chun-quan; He, Jian-xing; Liu, Lei; Shan, Hong; Lei, Chun-liang; Hui, David SC; Du, Bin; Li, Lan-juan; Zeng, Guang; Yuen, Kowk-Yung; Chen, Ru-chong; Tang, Chun-li; Wang, Tao; Chen, Ping-yan; Xiang, Jie; Li, Shi-yue; Wang, Jin-lin; Liang, Zi-jing; Peng, Yi-xiang; Wei, Li; Liu, Yong; Hu, Ya-hua; Peng, Peng; Wang, Jian-ming; Liu, Ji-yang; Chen, Zhong; Li, Gang; Zheng, Zhi-jian; Qiu, Shao-qin; Luo, Jie; Ye, Chang-jiang; Zhu, Shao-yong; Zhong, Nan-shan (2020). doi:10.1101/2020.02.06.20020974. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ 19.0 19.1 Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X, Li T, Chen Q (February 2020). "High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa". Int J Oral Sci. 12 (1): 8. doi:10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x. PMC 7039956 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32094336 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Zhang, Haibo; Penninger, Josef M.; Li, Yimin; Zhong, Nanshan; Slutsky, Arthur S. (2020). "Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target". Intensive Care Medicine. doi:10.1007/s00134-020-05985-9. ISSN 0342-4642.
- ↑ Kasumba DM, Grandvaux N (February 2019). "Therapeutic Targeting of RIG-I and MDA5 Might Not Lead to the Same Rome". Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 40 (2): 116–127. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2018.12.003. PMC 7112877 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 30606502. - ↑ Huang, Chaolin; Wang, Yeming; Li, Xingwang; Ren, Lili; Zhao, Jianping; Hu, Yi; Zhang, Li; Fan, Guohui; Xu, Jiuyang; Gu, Xiaoying; Cheng, Zhenshun; Yu, Ting; Xia, Jiaan; Wei, Yuan; Wu, Wenjuan; Xie, Xuelei; Yin, Wen; Li, Hui; Liu, Min; Xiao, Yan; Gao, Hong; Guo, Li; Xie, Jungang; Wang, Guangfa; Jiang, Rongmeng; Gao, Zhancheng; Jin, Qi; Wang, Jianwei; Cao, Bin (2020). "Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China". The Lancet. 395 (10223): 497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5. ISSN 0140-6736.
- ↑ Velavan, Thirumalaisamy P.; Meyer, Christian G. (2020). "The COVID‐19 epidemic". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 25 (3): 278–280. doi:10.1111/tmi.13383. ISSN 1360-2276.
- ↑ Peiris JS, Chu CM, Cheng VC, Chan KS, Hung IF, Poon LL, Law KI, Tang BS, Hon TY, Chan CS, Chan KH, Ng JS, Zheng BJ, Ng WL, Lai RW, Guan Y, Yuen KY (May 2003). "Clinical progression and viral load in a community outbreak of coronavirus-associated SARS pneumonia: a prospective study". Lancet. 361 (9371): 1767–72. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13412-5. PMID 12781535.
- ↑ Nicholls JM, Poon LL, Lee KC, Ng WF, Lai ST, Leung CY, Chu CM, Hui PK, Mak KL, Lim W, Yan KW, Chan KH, Tsang NC, Guan Y, Yuen KY, Peiris JS (May 2003). "Lung pathology of fatal severe acute respiratory syndrome". Lancet. 361 (9371): 1773–8. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13413-7. PMID 12781536.
- ↑ Wong CK, Lam CW, Wu AK, Ip WK, Lee NL, Chan IH, Lit LC, Hui DS, Chan MH, Chung SS, Sung JJ (April 2004). "Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome". Clin. Exp. Immunol. 136 (1): 95–103. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02415.x. PMC 1808997. PMID 15030519.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Velavan, Thirumalaisamy P.; Meyer, Christian G. (2020). "The COVID‐19 epidemic". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 25 (3): 278–280. doi:10.1111/tmi.13383. ISSN 1360-2276.
- ↑ Rothan, Hussin A.; Byrareddy, Siddappa N. (2020). "The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak". Journal of Autoimmunity: 102433. doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102433. ISSN 0896-8411.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.7 29.8 Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S; et al. (2020). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69 (24): 759–765. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2. PMC 7302472 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32555134 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Hu, Zhiliang; Song, Ci; Xu, Chuanjun; Jin, Guangfu; Chen, Yaling; Xu, Xin; Ma, Hongxia; Chen, Wei; Lin, Yuan; Zheng, Yishan; Wang, Jianming; Hu, Zhibin; Yi, Yongxiang; Shen, Hongbing (2020). "Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID-19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China". Science China Life Sciences. doi:10.1007/s11427-020-1661-4. ISSN 1674-7305.
- ↑ Zou, Lirong; Ruan, Feng; Huang, Mingxing; Liang, Lijun; Huang, Huitao; Hong, Zhongsi; Yu, Jianxiang; Kang, Min; Song, Yingchao; Xia, Jinyu; Guo, Qianfang; Song, Tie; He, Jianfeng; Yen, Hui-Ling; Peiris, Malik; Wu, Jie (2020). "SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load in Upper Respiratory Specimens of Infected Patients". New England Journal of Medicine. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2001737. ISSN 0028-4793.
- ↑ Porcheddu R, Serra C, Kelvin D, Kelvin N, Rubino S (February 2020). "Similarity in Case Fatality Rates (CFR) of COVID-19/SARS-COV-2 in Italy and China". J Infect Dev Ctries. 14 (2): 125–128. doi:10.3855/jidc.12600. PMID 32146445 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ <Castagnoli R, Votto M, Licari A, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2) infection in children and adolescents - a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr Rev. 2020. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1467>
- ↑ <Dong Y, Mo X, Hu Y, et al. Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China. Pediatrics. 2020. 10.1542/peds.2020-0702>
- ↑ <Castagnoli R, Votto M, Licari A, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2) infection in children and adolescents - a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr Rev. 2020. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1467>
- ↑ <Dong Y, Mo X, Hu Y, et al. Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China. Pediatrics. 2020. 10.1542/peds.2020-0702>
- ↑ <http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2>
- ↑ <https://www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/study-determine-incidence-novel-coronavirus-infection-us-children-begins>
- ↑ <Castagnoli R, Votto M, Licari A, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2) infection in children and adolescents - a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr Rev. 2020. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1467>
- ↑ <Dong Y, Mo X, Hu Y, et al. Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China. Pediatrics. 2020. 10.1542/peds.2020-0702>
- ↑ <http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2>
- ↑ <https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/covidview/index.html>
- ↑ <https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html
- ↑ <https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html
- ↑ <Hui DS, Zumla A. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome: Historical, Epidemiologic, and Clinical Features. Infectious Disease Clinics. 2019 Dec 1;33(4):869-89>
- ↑ Rasmussen SA, Smulian JC, Lednicky JA, Wen TS, Jamieson DJ (2020). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and pregnancy: what obstetricians need to know". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 222 (5): 415–426. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2020.02.017. PMC 7093856 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32105680 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Mahyuddin AP, Kanneganti A, Wong J, Dimri PS, Su LL, Biswas A; et al. (2020). "Mechanisms and evidence of vertical transmission of infections in pregnancy including SARS-CoV-2". Prenat Diagn. doi:10.1002/pd.5765. PMC 7307070 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32529643 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ <https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/care-for-breastfeeding-women.html>
- ↑ Zamaniyan M, Ebadi A, Aghajanpoor S, Rahmani Z, Haghshenas M, Azizi S (2020). "Preterm delivery, maternal death, and vertical transmission in a pregnant woman with COVID-19 infection". Prenat Diagn. doi:10.1002/pd.5713. PMC 7264605 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32304114 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Zeng H, Xu C, Fan J, Tang Y, Deng Q, Zhang W; et al. (2020). "Antibodies in Infants Born to Mothers With COVID-19 Pneumonia". JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.4861. PMC 7099444 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32215589 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Dong L, Tian J, He S, Zhu C, Wang J, Liu C; et al. (2020). "Possible Vertical Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 From an Infected Mother to Her Newborn". JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.4621. PMC 7099527 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32215581 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Chen, Nanshan; Zhou, Min; Dong, Xuan; Qu, Jieming; Gong, Fengyun; Han, Yang; Qiu, Yang; Wang, Jingli; Liu, Ying; Wei, Yuan; Xia, Jia'an; Yu, Ting; Zhang, Xinxin; Zhang, Li (2020). "Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study". The Lancet. 395 (10223): 507–513. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7. ISSN 0140-6736.
- ↑ "[Diagnosis and clinical management of 2019 novel coronavirus infection: an operational recommendation of Peking Union Medical College Hospital (V2.0)]". Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi (in Chinese). 59 (3): 186–188. February 2020. doi:10.3760/cma.j.issn.0578-1426.2020.03.003. PMID 32023681 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 55.0 55.1 Belhadjer, Zahra; Méot, Mathilde; Bajolle, Fanny; Khraiche, Diala; Legendre, Antoine; Abakka, Samya; Auriau, Johanne; Grimaud, Marion; Oualha, Mehdi; Beghetti, Maurice; Wacker, Julie; Ovaert, Caroline; Hascoet, Sebastien; Selegny, Maëlle; Malekzadeh-Milani, Sophie; Maltret, Alice; Bosser, Gilles; Giroux, Nathan; Bonnemains, Laurent; Bordet, Jeanne; Di Filippo, Sylvie; Mauran, Pierre; Falcon-Eicher, Sylvie; Thambo, Jean-Benoît; Lefort, Bruno; Moceri, Pamela; Houyel, Lucile; Renolleau, Sylvain; Bonnet, Damien (2020). "Acute heart failure in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in the context of global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic". Circulation. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360. ISSN 0009-7322.
- ↑ <Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in parents and youth after health-related disasters. Sprang G, Silman M Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2013 Feb; 7(1):105-10.>
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 Chen ZM, Fu JF, Shu Q, Chen YH, Hua CZ, Li FB; et al. (2020). "Diagnosis and treatment recommendations for pediatric respiratory infection caused by the 2019 novel coronavirus". World J Pediatr. 16 (3): 240–246. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00345-5. PMC 7091166 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32026148 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Diotallevi, Federico; Campanati, Anna; Bianchelli, Tommaso; Bobyr, Ivan; Luchetti, Michele Maria; Marconi, Barbara; Martina, Emanuela; Radi, Giulia; Offidani, Annamaria (2020). "Skin involvement in SARS‐CoV‐2 infection: Case series". Journal of Medical Virology. doi:10.1002/jmv.26012. ISSN 0146-6615.
- ↑ Andina, David; Noguera‐Morel, Lucero; Bascuas‐Arribas, Marta; Gaitero‐Tristán, Jara; Alonso‐Cadenas, José Antonio; Escalada‐Pellitero, Silvia; Hernández‐Martín, Ángela; Torre‐Espi, Mercedes; Colmenero, Isabel; Torrelo, Antonio (2020). "Chilblains in children in the setting of COVID‐19 pandemic". Pediatric Dermatology. 37 (3): 406–411. doi:10.1111/pde.14215. ISSN 0736-8046.
- ↑ Dugue, Rachelle; Cay-Martínez, Karla C.; Thakur, Kiran T.; Garcia, Joel A.; Chauhan, Lokendra V.; Williams, Simon H.; Briese, Thomas; Jain, Komal; Foca, Marc; McBrian, Danielle K.; Bain, Jennifer M.; Lipkin, W. Ian; Mishra, Nischay (2020). "Neurologic manifestations in an infant with COVID-19". Neurology. 94 (24): 1100–1102. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000009653. ISSN 0028-3878.
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 Shen K, Yang Y, Wang T, Zhao D, Jiang Y, Jin R; et al. (2020). "Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts' consensus statement". World J Pediatr. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00343-7. PMC 7090771 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32034659 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Sankar J, Dhochak N, Kabra SK, Lodha R (2020). "COVID-19 in Children: Clinical Approach and Management". Indian J Pediatr. 87 (6): 433–442. doi:10.1007/s12098-020-03292-1. PMC 7183927 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32338347 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 Zhang L, Peres TG, Silva MVF, Camargos P (2020). "What we know so far about Coronavirus Disease 2019 in children: A meta-analysis of 551 laboratory-confirmed cases". Pediatr Pulmonol. doi:10.1002/ppul.24869. PMC 7300763 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32519809 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Deniz M, Tapısız A, Tezer H (2020). "Drugs being investigated for children with COVID-19". Acta Paediatr. doi:10.1111/apa.15399. PMC 7300686 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32506621 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Wang BX, Fish EN (2019). "Global virus outbreaks: Interferons as 1st responders". Semin Immunol. 43: 101300. doi:10.1016/j.smim.2019.101300. PMC 7128104 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 31771760. - ↑ Chen L, Shi M, Deng Q, Liu W, Li Q, Ye P; et al. (2020). "Correction: A multi-center randomized prospective study on the treatment of infant bronchiolitis with interferon α1b nebulization". PLoS One. 15 (4): e0231911. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0231911. PMC 7147733 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32275690 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, Diaz G, Asperges E, Castagna A; et al. (2020). "Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients with Severe Covid-19". N Engl J Med. 382 (24): 2327–2336. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2007016. PMC 7169476 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32275812 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Dörnemann J, Burzio C, Ronsse A, Sprecher A, De Clerck H, Van Herp M; et al. (2017). "First Newborn Baby to Receive Experimental Therapies Survives Ebola Virus Disease". J Infect Dis. 215 (2): 171–174. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiw493. PMC 5583641. PMID 28073857.
- ↑ Campbell CH (1967). "Effect of incubation temperature and serum content in agar overlay on plaque production by foot-and-mouth disease virus". Can J Comp Med Vet Sci. 31 (10): 251–5. PMC 1494743. PMID 04292899.
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, Chen J, Shu D, Xia J; et al. (2020). "Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study". Engineering (Beijing). doi:10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007. PMC 7185795 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32346491 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 71.0 71.1 Bouazza N, Treluyer JM, Foissac F, Mentré F, Taburet AM, Guedj J; et al. (2015). "Favipiravir for children with Ebola". Lancet. 385 (9968): 603–604. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60232-X. PMID 25706078.
- ↑ <Castagnoli R, Votto M, Licari A, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2) infection in children and adolescents - a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr Rev. 2020. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1467>
- ↑ <Dong Y, Mo X, Hu Y, et al. Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China. Pediatrics. 2020. 10.1542/peds.2020-0702>
- ↑ Fantini MP, Reno C, Biserni GB, Savoia E, Lanari M (2020). "COVID-19 and the re-opening of schools: a policy maker's dilemma". Ital J Pediatr. 46 (1): 79. doi:10.1186/s13052-020-00844-1. PMC 7280677 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32517815 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ <https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/schools.html>
- ↑ Bressan S, Gallo E, Tirelli F, Gregori D, Da Dalt L (2020). "Lockdown: more domestic accidents than COVID-19 in children". Arch Dis Child. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2020-319547. PMID 32487724 Check
|pmid=value (help).