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Bacteria – Gram-Negative Bacilli

  • Acinetobacter baumannii[1]


  • 1. Cat scratch disease
  • 1.1 If extensive adenopathy
  • 2. Retinitis
  • 3. Bacillary angiomatosis
  • 4. Peliosis hepatitis
  • 5. Oroya fever
  • 6. Endocarditis
  • Bordetella pertussis[3]
  • 1. Whooping cough
  • 1.1 Adults
  • Preferred regimen (1): Azithromycin 500 mg PO single dose on day 1 THEN 250 mg PO qd on 2-5 days
  • Preferred regimen (2): Erythromycin 2 g/day PO qid for 14 days
  • Preferred regimen (3): Clarithromycin 1 g PO bid for 7 days.
  • Alternative regimen (intolerant of macrolides): Trimethoprim 320 mg/day AND Sulfamethoxazole 1600 mg/day PO bid for 14 days
  • 1.2 Infants <6 months of age
  • 1.2.1 Infants <1 month
  • Preferred regimen (1): Azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO qd for 5 days
  • Preferred regimen (2) (if azithromycin unavailable): Erythromycin 40-50 mg/kg/day PO q6h for 14 days
  • Note: TMP-SMX contraindicated for infants aged <2 months
  • 1.2.2 Infants of 1-5 months of age
  • Preferred regimen (1): Azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO qd for 5 days
  • Preferred regimen (2): Erythromycin 40-50 mg/kg/day qid for 14 days
  • Preferred regimen (3): Clarithromycin 15 mg/kg PO bid for 7 days
  • Alternative regimen: For infants aged ≥2 months TMP 8 mg/kg q24h AND SMX 40 mg/kg/day bid for 14 days
  • 1.3 Infants ≥6 months of age-children
  • Preferred regimen(1): Azithromycin 10 mg/kg single dose THEN 5 mg/kg (500 mg Maximum) qd for 2-5 days
  • Preferred regimen(2): Erythromycin 40-50 mg/kg PO (2 g daily Maximum) qid for 14 days
  • Preferred regimen(3): Clarithromycin 15 mg/kg PO (1 g daily Maximum) bid for 7 days
  • Preferred regimen(4): TMP 8 mg/kg/day AND SMX 40 mg/kg/day bid for 14 days
  • 2. Post exposure prophylaxis[4]
  • Preferred regimen: The antibiotic regimens for post exposure prophylaxis are similar to the regimens used for the treatment of pertussis
  • Note (1): Post exposure prophylaxis to an asymptomatic contacts within 21 days of onset of cough in the index patient can potentially prevent symptomatic infection
  • Note (2): Close contacts include persons who have direct contact with respiratory, oral or nasal secretions from a symptomatic patient (eg: cough, sneeze, sharing food, eating utensils, mouth to mouth resuscitation, or performing a medical examination of the mouth, nose, throat.
  • Note (3): Some close contacts are at high risk for acquiring severe disease following exposure to pertussis. These contacts include infants aged < 1 year , persons with some immunodeficiency conditions, or other underlying medical conditions such as chronic lung disease, respiratory insufficiency and cystic fibrosis.
  • Burkholderia cepacia complex[5]
  • Burkholderia pseudomallei
  • 1. Melioidosis[6]
  • 1.1 Intial intensive therapy (Minimum of 10-14 days)
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ceftazidime 50 mg/kg upto 2 g q6h
  • Preferred regimen (2): Meropenem 25 mg/kg upto 1 g q8h
  • Preferred regimen (3): Imipenem 25 mg/kg upto 1 g q6h
  • Note: Any one of the three may be combined with TMP-SMX 6/30 mg/kg upto 320/1600 mg/kg q12h (recommended for neurologic, bone, joint, cutaneous and prostatic melioidosis)
  • 1.2 Eradication therapy (Minimum of 3 months)
  • Preferred regimen: TMP-SMX 6/30 mg/kg upto 320/1600 mg/kg q12h
  • Campylobacter fetus[7]
  • 1. Serious infections
  • 2. Endovascular infections
  • 3. CNS
  • Capnocytophaga canimorsus[8]
  • 1. Severe cellulitis/sepsis or endocarditis
  • Preferred regimen (1) (Beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor): Ampicillin/sulbactam 3 g IV q6h
  • Preferred regimen (2) (Non-beta-lactamase producing): Penicillin G 2-4 MU IV q24h
  • Alternative regimen (1): Ceftriaxone 1-2 g IV q24h
  • Alternative regimen (2): Meropenem 1 g IV q8h
  • Alternative regimen (3) (complicated infections or immunocompromise): Clindamycin 600 mg IV q8h may be combined with above agents
  • Note (1): Resistance to aztreonam described, and variable susceptibility reported to TMP-SMX and aminoglycosides
  • Note (2): For endocarditis, alternatives to penicillins not well established, treated for duration of 6 weeks
  • Note (3): For non-endocarditis infections, duration not well established, but most authorities recommend at least 14-21 days of therapy
  • 2. Mild cellulitis/dog or cat bites
  • 3. Meningitis or brain abscess
  • 4. Prevention
  • Although no firm data supports this recommendation, many clinicians do give prophylaxis for dog and cat bites in asplenic patients with Amoxicillin/clavulanate for 7-10 days.
  • Citrobacter freundii[9]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Meropenem 1-2 g IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (2): Imipenem 1 g IV q6h
  • Preferred regimen (3): Doripenem 500 mg IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (4): Cefepime 1-2 g IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (5): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q12h OR 500 mg PO bid for UTI
  • Preferred regimen (6): Gentamicin 5 mg/kg/day.
  • Alternate regimen (1): Piperacillin/tazobactam 3.375 mg IV q6h
  • Alternate regimen (2): Aztreonam 1-2 g IV q6h
  • Alternate regimen (3): TMP-SMX 5 mg/kg q6h IV OR DS PO bid for UTI
  • Citrobacter koseri[10]
  • Enterobacter aerogenes[11]
  • 1. UTI
  • Enterobacter cloacae[12]
  • 1.UTI
  • Escherichia coli[13]
  • 1. Meningitits
  • Preferred regimen (2): Cefotaxime 8–12 g/day IV q4–6h
  • Alternative regimen (1): Aztreonam 6–8 g/day IV q6–8h
  • Alternative regimen (4): Meropenem 6 g/day IV q8h
  • Alternative regimen (6): Ampicillin 12 g/day IV q4h
  • 2. Uncomplicated urinary tract infection
  • Preferred agents (IDSA/AUA Guidelines): TMP-SMX DS PO bid for 3 days
  • Alternative regimen(1): Ciprofloxacin 250 mg PO bid
  • Alternative regimen(5): Nitrofurantoin macrocrystals 100 mg PO bid for 7 days
  • Alternative regimen(6): Fosfomycin 3 g sachet PO single dose
  • Note: For older patients, those with comorbidities (e.g., diabetes mellitus) use 7-10 days course.
  • 3. Pyelonephritis
  • 3.1 Acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis
  • Alternative regimen (3): TMP-SMX 2 mg/kg IV q6h PO for 14 days
  • 3.2 Acute pyelonephritis (Hospitalized)
  • Alternative regimen (4): Ertapenem 1 gm IV q24h
  • Alternative regimen (5): Doripenem 500 mg q8h for 14 days
  • 4. Traveler’s diarrhea
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ciprofloxacin 750 mg PO qd for 1-3 days OR other Fluoroquinolones
  • Preferred regimen (2) (pediatrics & pregnancy): Azithromycin 10 mg/kg/day single dose
  • Preferred regimen (3) (pediatrics & pregnancy): Ceftriaxone 50 mg/kg/day IV qd for 3 days.
  • Note: Avoid fluoroquinolones in pediatrics and pregnancy.
  • 5. Malacoplakia
  • Preferred regimen (2): TMP-SMX 2 mg/kg (TMP component IV q6h)
  • 6. Bacteremia/pneumonia
  • Preferred regimen (2): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q12h OR 500 mg PO q12h
  • Preferred regimen (5): Ampicillin(if sensitive) 2 g IV q6h
  • Francisella tularensis[14]
  • 1. Tularemia
  • Preferred regimen (2): Gentamicin 5 mg/kg IV q24h for 10 days.
  • Preferred regimen (3) (pregnancy): Gentamicin 5 mg/kg/day IV for 10 days
  • Alternative regimen (1): Doxycycline 100 mg IV bid
  • Alternative regimen (3): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV bid until stable THEN PO for 14-21 days (total)
  • Alternative regimen (4) (pregnancy): Ciprofloxacin
  • Helicobacter pylori[15]
  • 1. Peptic ulcer disease
  • 1.1 Regimens for Initial Treatment
  • 1.1.1 Triple therapy
  • 1.1.2 Quadruple therapy
  • 1.1.3 Sequential therapy
  • 1.2 Second-Line Therapies
  • 1.2.1 Triple therapy
  • 1.2.2 Quadruple therapy
  • 1.2.3 Levofloxacin triple therapy
  • 1.2.4 Rifabutin triple therapy
  • Preferred regimen: PPI (standard dose twice daily) AND Amoxicillin 1 g bid AND Rifabutin 150-300 mg/day for 10 days
  • Klebsiella granulomatis (formly known as Calymmatobacterium granulomatis)
  • 1. Granuloma inguinale (donovanosis)[16]
  • Preferred regimen: Azithromycin 1 g PO once a week OR 500 mg qd for 3 weeks THEN until all lesions have completely healed
  • Alternative regimen (1): Doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 3 weeks THEN until all lesions have completely healed
  • Alternative regimen (2): Ciprofloxacin 750 mg PO bid for at least 3 weeks THEN until all lesions have completely healed
  • Alternative regimen (3): Erythromycin base 500 mg PO qid for at least 3 weeks THEN until all lesions have completely healed
  • Alternative regimen (4): Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole DS (160 mg/800 mg) tablet PO bid for at least 3 weeks THEN until all lesions have completely healed
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae[17]
  • 1. Severe, nosocomial infection
  • Preferred regimen (1): Cefepime 2g IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (3): Imipenem 500mg IV q6h
  • Preferred regimen (6): Respiratory fluoroquinolone
  • Preferred regimen (7) (For coverage of ESBLs in pneumonia, sepsis, complicated UTI or intra-abdominal infections): Imipenem 500mg IV q6h
  • Preferred regimen (8) (For coverage of ESBLs in pneumonia, sepsis, complicated UTI or intra-abdominal infections): Meropenem 1g IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (9) (For coverage of ESBLs in pneumonia, sepsis, complicated UTI or intra-abdominal infections): Ertapenem 1g IV q24h
  • Preferred regimen (10) (For coverage of ESBLs in pneumonia, sepsis, complicated UTI or intra-abdominal infections): Doripenem 500mg IV q8h
  • Note: In ESBLs,inconsistent activity seen with aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, and piperacillin-tazobactam. Avoid cephalosporins
  • Alternate regimen (1): Ceftriaxone 1 gm IV q24h AND Metronidazole 500 mg IV q6h OR 1 gm IV q12h
  • Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ciprofloxacin 500–750 mg PO bid for 2–3 months
  • Legionella pneumophila[22]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Levofloxacin 750 mg PO/IV qd for 7-10 days
  • Preferred regimen (2): Moxifloxacin 400 mg PO/IV qd for 7-10 days
  • Preferred regimen (3): Azithromycin 500 mg PO/IV qd for 7-10 days
  • Preferred regimen (4): Rifampin 300 mg PO/IV bid
  • Alternative regimen (1): Erythromycin 1 g IV q6h and THEN 500 mg PO q6h for 7-10 days
  • Alternative regimen (2): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q12h THEN 750 mg PO bid 7-10 days
  • Moraxella catarrhalis[23]
  • Pneumonia
  • Preferred regimen (2): Oral cephalosporins such as Cefprozil 200-500 mg bid
  • Preferred regimen (5): Cefdinir 300 mg bid
  • Preferred regimen (7): Macrolides such as Erythromycin 500 mg PO q6h
  • Preferred regimen (9): Azithromycin 500 mg single dose THEN 250 mg PO
  • Preferred regimen (10): Flouroquinolones such as Moxifloxacin 400 mg IV/PO qd
  • Preferred regimen (12): TMP-SMX DS PO bid
  • Morganella morganii[24]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Imipenem 500 mg IV q6h
  • Preferred regimen (2): Meropenem 1.0 g IV q8h (adjust dose if necessary for renalfunction).
  • Note (1): Carbapenems are considered first line therapy due to inducible cephalosporinases, and presence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in some isolates.
  • Note (2): Duration of treatment for UTI (generally complicated) is 7 days and Duration of treatment for bacteremia is 14 days.
  • Note (3): Tigecycline is not reliably effective
  • Alternative Regimen (1): Cefepime 2.0 g IV q8-12h
  • Alternative Regimen (6): Tobramycin 1 mg/kg IV q24h
  • Alternative Regimen (7): Amikacin 3 mg/kg IV q24h
  • Note: Aminoglycosides can be used alone for treatment of UTI
  • Plesiomonas shigelloides[25]
  • 1. Immunocompetent hosts or severe Infection
  • Preferred regimen : Ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO bid OR 400 mg IV q12h
  • Alternative regimen (1): Ofloxacin 300 mg PO bid
  • Alternative regimen (3): TMP-SMX DS PO bid for 3 days
  • Alternative regimen (4) (severe cases): Ceftriaxone 1-2 g IV qd
  • 2. Immunocompromised hosts
  • Alternative regimen (3) (if susceptible): TMP-SMX DS PO bid for 3 days
  • Proteus mirabilis[26]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ampicillin 500 mg PO q6h or 2 g IV q6h
  • Preferred regimen (2): Cefuroxime 250 mg PO bid or 750 mg IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (3): Ciprofloxacin 250-500 mg PO bid or 400 mg IV q12h
  • Preferred regimen (4): Levofloxacin 500 mg PO OD or 500 mg IV q24h
  • Note: Uncomplicated UTI 3 days, pyelonephritis 7-14 days, complicated UTI 10-21 days and bacteremia 7-14 days
  • Indole positive Proteus species[27]
  • 1. Complicated uti/bacteremia/acute prostatitis
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ciprofloxacin 500-750 mg PO q12h OR 400 mg IV q8-12h
  • Preferred regimen (4): Ceftriaxone 1-2 g IV q24h (donot use if ESBL suspected or critically ill)
  • Preferred regimen (5): Meropenem 1 g IV q8h (consider if critically ill or ESBL suspected)
  • Preferred regimen (6): Amikacin 7.5 mg/kg IV q12h
  • Preferred regimen (8): Tobramycin acceptable if susceptible but many species are resistant.
  • Note (1): Duration of treatment for (UTI) is 7 days common or 3-5 days after defervescence or control/elimination of complicating factors (e.g.,removal of foreign material catheter).
  • Note (2): Duration of treatment for (bacteremia) is 10-14 days or 3-5 days after defervescence or control/elimination of complicating factors.
  • Note (3): Duration for acute prostatitis (2weeks), shorter than chronic prostatitis (4-6wks)
  • Alternative regimen: TMP-SMX DS PO q12h for 10-14 days OR TMP 5-10 mg/kg/day IV q6h.
  • Pseudomonas aeruginosa[29]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Cefepime 2 g IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (3): Piperacillin 3-4 g IV q4h in (no benefit for pseudomonas from beta-lactamase inhibitor)
  • Preferred regimen (4): Ticarcillin 3-4 g IV q4h (no benefit for pseudomonas from beta-lactamase inhibitor).
  • Preferred regimen (5): Imipenem 500 mg—1 g IV q6h
  • Preferred regimen (7): Doripenem 500 mg IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (8): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q8h OR 750mg PO q12h (for less serious infections).
  • Preferred regimen (9): Aztreonam 2 g IV q6-8h.
  • Preferred regimen (10): Colistin 2.5 mg/kg IV q12h.
  • Preferred regimen (11): Polymyxin B 0.75-1.25 mg/kg IV q12h
  • Preferred regimen (13): Tobramycin 1.7-2.0 mg/Kg IV q8h OR 5-7 mg/kg IV
  • Preferred regimen (14): Amikacin 2.5 mg/kg IV q12h
  • Note: Amikacin > Tobramycin > Gentamicin with respect to P.aeruginosa susceptibility percentages at most institutions.
  • 1.Gastroenteritis
  • 1.1 Immunocompetent
  • Preferred treatment (1): TMP-SMX DS PO bid
  • Preferred treatment (3): Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q24h for 5-7 days.
  • 1.2 Immunosuppressed
  • Preferred treatment (1): TMP-SMX DS PO bid
  • Preferred treatment (3): Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q24h for ≥ 14 days.
  • 2. Typhoid fever
  • 3. Non-typhoid (serious infection)
  • 4. Bacteremia
  • Preferred regimen (2): Cefotaxime 2 g IV q6-8h for 7-14 days
  • Preferred regimen (3): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q12h for 7-14 days
  • 5. Vascular prosthesis infection
  • 6. Osteomyelitis
  • Preferred regimen (3): Ciprofloxacin 750 mg PO bid for ≥ 4 weeks
  • 7. Arthritis
  • Preferred regimen (2): Cefotaxime 2 g IV q6-8h for 6 weeks.
  • 8.Endocarditis
  • Preferred regimen (2): Cefotaxime 2 g IV q6-8h for 6 weeks.
  • 9.UTI
  • 10. HIV and salmonellosis
  • Preferred regimen: (IV Cephalosporin OR IV Fluoroquinolone) THEN oral flouroquinolones (Ciprofloxacin 500-750 mg PO bid for 4 weeks).
  • Note: If relapse occurs within 6 weeks give life-long abx or until immune recovery post-ART
  • 11. Carrier state
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO bid for 4-6 weeks
  • Preferred regimen (2): TMP-SMX 1DS bid PO for 6 weeks
  • Preferred regimen (3): Amoxicillin 500 mg PO for 6 weeks.
  • Serratia marcescens[31]
  • 1. Bacteremia, pneumonia or serious infections
  • Preferred regimen (1): Cefepime 1-2 g IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (2): Imipenem 0.5-1.0 g IV q6h
  • Alternative regimen (4): Piperacillin/tazobactam also often effective.
  • Note: Duration depends on clinical response, usually 7-14days.
  • 2. Endocarditis
  • Note: Choice dictated by sensitivities. 4to6 week duration of parenteral therapy.
  • 3. Osteomyelitis
  • Note (1): Choice dictated by sensitivity profile. Treat for 6-12 weeks depending upon response.
  • Note (2): Use IV treatment until stable/clinically improved (10-14days Minimum) then may convert to PO therapy if appropriate
  • 4. UTI
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ciprofloxacin 250 mg PO bid OR 400 mg IV q12h
  • Preferred regimen (2): Levofloxacin 250 mg PO qd OR 500mg IV q24h
  • Note: Fluoroquinolones often sensitive but in seriously ill patient consider empiric coverage with two drugs(e.g.,beta-lactam and aminoglycoside or fluoroquinolones and carbapenem)until susceptibilities known.
  • Preferred regimen (1) (if known sulfa sensitive): TMP(160 mg) AND SMX (800 mg) PO q12h for 3-5 days
  • Preferred regimen (2) (pediatric dose): TMP 5 mg AND SMX 25 mg/kg PO bid.
  • Preferred regimen (3) (if TMP/SMX resistant or unknown susceptibility): Ciprofloxacin 500 mg
  • Preferred regimen (4) (if TMP/SMX resistant or unknown susceptibility): Norfloxacin 400 mg
  • Preferred regimen (5) (if TMP/SMX resistant or unknown susceptibility): Ofloxacin 200 mg PO bid for 3-5 days
  • Alternative regimen (1): Ceftriaxone 1 g IV q24h
  • Alternative regimen (2): Azithromycin 500 mg PO single dose THEN 250 mg PO for 4 days
  • Alternative regimen (3): Nalidixic acid 250 mg PO q6h OR pediatric dose 55kg/day)
  • Alternative regimen (4) (depending on susceptibility patterns): Ampicillin 500 mg PO q6h
  • Note: In southeast Asia, growing resistance seen to fluoroquinolones, azithromycin maybe preferred
  • Stenotrophomonas maltophilia[33]
  • Preferred treatment: TMP-SMX 15-20 mg/kg/day (TMP component) IV/PO q8h.
  • Alternative treatment (1): Ceftazidime 2 g IV q8h
  • Alternative treatment (3): Tigecycline 100 mg IV single dose THEN 50 mg IV q12h.
  • Alternative treatment (4): Ciprofloxacin 500-750 mg PO /400 mg IV q12h
  • Alternative treatment (5): Moxifloxacin 400 mg PO/IV
  • Alternative treatment (6): Levofloxacin 750 mg PO/IV .
  • Alternative treatment (7) (Multiply-resistantance): Colistin 2.5 mg/kg q12h IV.
  • Note: Treatment duration uncertain, but usually ≥14days
  1. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  2. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  3. ↑ "Recommended Antimicrobial Agents for the Treatment and Postexposure Prophylaxis of Pertussis 2005 CDC Guidelines".
  4. ↑ "Recommended Antimicrobial Agents for the Treatment and Postexposure Prophylaxis of Pertussis 2005 CDC Guidelines".
  5. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  6. ↑ Wiersinga WJ, Currie BJ, Peacock SJ (2012). "Melioidosis". N. Engl. J. Med. 367 (11): 1035–44. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1204699. PMID 22970946.
  7. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  8. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  9. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  10. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  11. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  12. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  13. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  14. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  15. ↑ Lua error: expandTemplate: template "citation error" does not exist.
  16. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  17. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  18. ↑ Mukara, B. K.; Munyarugamba, P.; Dazert, S.; Löhler, J. (2014-07). "Rhinoscleroma: a case series report and review of the literature". European archives of oto-rhino-laryngology: official journal of the European Federation of Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Societies (EUFOS): affiliated with the German Society for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. 271 (7): 1851–1856. doi:10.1007/s00405-013-2649-z. ISSN 1434-4726. PMID 23904142. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ↑ de Pontual, Loïc; Ovetchkine, Philippe; Rodriguez, Diana; Grant, Audrey; Puel, Anne; Bustamante, Jacinta; Plancoulaine, Sabine; Yona, Laurent; Lienhart, Pierre-Yves; Dehesdin, Danièle; Huerre, Michel; Tournebize, Régis; Sansonetti, Philippe; Abel, Laurent; Casanova, Jean Laurent (2008-12-01). "Rhinoscleroma: a French national retrospective study of epidemiological and clinical features". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 47 (11): 1396–1402. doi:10.1086/592966. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 18947330.
  20. ↑ Gaafar, Hazem A.; Gaafar, Alaa H.; Nour, Yasser A. (2011-04). "Rhinoscleroma: an updated experience through the last 10 years". Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 131 (4): 440–446. doi:10.3109/00016489.2010.539264. ISSN 1651-2251. PMID 21198342. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ↑ Mukara, B. K.; Munyarugamba, P.; Dazert, S.; Löhler, J. (2014-07). "Rhinoscleroma: a case series report and review of the literature". European archives of oto-rhino-laryngology: official journal of the European Federation of Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Societies (EUFOS): affiliated with the German Society for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. 271 (7): 1851–1856. doi:10.1007/s00405-013-2649-z. ISSN 1434-4726. PMID 23904142. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  23. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  24. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  25. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  26. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  27. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  28. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  29. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  30. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  31. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  32. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  33. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
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