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==Overview==
==Overview==
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Professionals involved in the public health aspect of this practice may be involved in [[entomology]], [[pest control]], and public health inspections. Public health inspections can include recreational [[water]]s, pools, beaches, [[food]] preparation and serving, and industrial [[hygiene]] inspections and surveys.
Professionals involved in the public health aspect of this practice may be involved in [[entomology]], [[pest control]], and public health inspections. Public health inspections can include recreational [[water]]s, pools, beaches, [[food]] preparation and serving, and industrial [[hygiene]] inspections and surveys.
'''Preventive medicine''' or '''preventive care''' consists of measures taken to prevent diseases,<ref>{{MeshName|Preventive+Medicine}}</ref> (or injuries) rather than [[curative care|curing]] them or [[palliative care|treating]] their symptoms. This contrasts in method with [[curative care|curative]] and [[palliative care|palliative]] medicine, and in scope with [[public health]] methods (which work at the level of population health rather than individual health). [[Occupational medicine]] operates very often within the preventive medicine.
==Levels==
Preventive medicine strategies are typically described as taking place at the primary, secondary, tertiary and [[Quaternary prevention|quaternary]] prevention levels. In addition, the term primal prevention has been used to describe all measures taken to ensure fetal well-being and prevent any long-term health consequences from gestational history and/or disease.<ref>Primal Research Centre, London</ref> The rationale for such efforts is the evidence demonstrating the link between fetal well-being, or "primal health," and adult health.<ref>Primal Health Research Databank</ref><ref>Effect of In Utero and Early-Life Conditions on Adult Health and Disease, by P.D.Gluckman et al., N ENGL J MED 359;1</ref> Primal prevention strategies typically focus on providing future parents with: education regarding the consequences of [[epigenetic]] influences on their child,<ref>Origins: How the nine months before birth shape the rest of your life, by Annie Murphy Paul, Time magazine, 176.14, 2010</ref> sufficient leave time for both parents, and financial support if required. This includes parenting in infancy as well.
Simple examples of preventive medicine include [[hand washing]], [[breastfeeding]], and [[immunization]]s. Preventive care may include examinations and screening tests tailored to an individual's age, health, and family history. For example, a person with a family history of certain cancers or other diseases would begin screening at an earlier age and/or more frequently than those with no such family history. On the other side of preventive medicine, some nonprofit organizations, such as the [[Northern California Cancer Center]], apply epidemiologic research towards finding ways to prevent diseases.
{| align="center" border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" style="align:center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|rowspan=3 colspan=3 align="center" style="background:SandyBrown; color:white" |<big>'''Prevention levels'''</big><ref>[http://www.primary-care.ch/pdf_d/2010/2010-18/2010-18-368_ELPS_engl.pdf Kuehlein T, Sghedoni D, Visentin G, Gérvas J, Jamoule M. Quaternary prevention: a task of the general practitioner. PrimaryCare. 2010; 10(18):350-4.]</ref>
|colspan=2 align="center" style="background:green; color:white" |'''Doctor’s side'''
|-
|colspan=2 align="center" style="background:Crimson; color:white" |'''Disease'''
|-
! align="center" style="background:Yellow; color:Black"| absent  !! align="center" style="background:red; color:white"| present
|-
! rowspan=2 align="center" style="background:green; color:white"|'''Patient’s<br />side'''
!! rowspan=2 align="center" style="background:Crimson; color:white" |'''Illness'''
!! align="right" style="background:Yellow; color:Black" | absent
| align="center" | '''Primary prevention'''<br />illness absent<br />disease absent
| align="center" | '''Secondary prevention'''<br />illness absent<br />disease present
|-
! align="right" style="background:red; color:white"|present
| align="center" | '''Quaternary prevention'''<br />illness present<br />disease absent
| align="center" | '''Tertiary prevention'''<br />illness present<br />disease present
|}
===Definitions<!-- Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention link here-->===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Level
!Definition
|-
|Primary prevention
|Methods to avoid occurrence of disease.<ref>{{MeshName|Primary+Prevention}}</ref> Most population-based [[health promotion]] efforts are of this type.
|-
|Secondary prevention
|Methods to diagnose and treat existent disease in early stages before it causes significant morbidity.<ref>{{MeshName|Secondary+Prevention}}</ref>
|-
|Tertiary prevention
|Methods to reduce negative impact of extant disease by restoring function and reducing disease-related complications.<ref>{{MeshName|Tertiary+Prevention}}</ref>
|-
|Quaternary prevention
|Methods to mitigate or avoid results of unnecessary or excessive interventions in the health system.<ref>Gofrit ON, Shemer J, Leibovici D, Modan B, Shapira SC. Quaternary prevention: a new look at an old challenge. Isr Med Assoc J. 2000;2(7):498-500.</ref>
|}
==Universal, selective, and indicated==
Gordon (1987) in the area of disease prevention,<ref>Gordon, R. (1987), ‘An operational classification of disease prevention’, in Steinberg, J. A. and Silverman, M. M. (eds.), Preventing Mental Disorders, Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1987.</ref> and later Kumpfer and Baxley in the area of substance use<ref>Kumpfer, K. L., and Baxley, G. B. (1997), 'Drug abuse prevention: What works?', National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville.</ref> proposed a three-tiered preventive intervention classification system: universal, selective, and indicated prevention. Amongst others, this typology has gained favour and is used by the U.S. [[Institute of Medicine]], the [[NIDA]] and the [[European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction]].
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Tier
!Definition
|-
|Universal prevention
|Involves whole population (nation, local community, school, district) and aims to prevent or delay the abuse of [[alcohol abuse|alcohol]], tobacco, and other [[drug abuse|drugs]]. All individuals, without screening, are provided with information and skills needed to prevent the problem.
|-
|Selective prevention
|Involves groups whose risk of developing problems of alcohol abuse or dependence is above average. Subgroups may be distinguished by traits such as age, gender, family history, or economic status. For example, drug campaigns in recreational settings.
|-
|Indicated prevention
|Involves a screening process, and aims to identify individuals who exhibit early signs of substance abuse and other problem behaviours. Identifiers may include falling grades among students, known problem consumption or [[conduct disorder]]s, alienation from parents, school, and positive peer groups etc.
|}
Outside the scope of this three-tier model is ''environmental prevention''. Environmental prevention approaches are typically managed at the regulatory or community level and focus on ways to deter drug consumption. Prohibition and bans (e.g. on [[smoking ban|smoking]], [[alcohol advertising]]) may be viewed as the ultimate environmental restriction. However, in practice, environmental preventions programs embrace various initiatives at the ''macro'' and ''micro'' level, from government monopolies for alcohol sales through roadside sobriety or drug tests, worker/pupil/student drug testing, increased policing in sensitive settings (near schools, at rock festivals), and legislative guidelines aimed at precipitating punishments (warnings, penalties, fines).
==Professionals==
Professionals involved in the public health aspect of this practice may be involved in [[entomology]], [[pest control]], and public health inspections. Public health inspections can include recreational [[water]]s, [[swimming pool]]s, [[beach]]es, [[food]] preparation and serving, and [[industry|industrial]] [[hygiene]] inspections and surveys.
In the [[United States]], preventive medicine is a [[medical specialty]], one of the 24 recognized by the [[American Board of Medical Specialties]] (ABMS). It encompasses three areas of specialization:
* General preventive medicine and public health
* Aerospace medicine
* Occupational medicine
To become board-certified in one of the preventive medicine areas of specialization, a licensed U.S. physician ([[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] or [[D.O.]]) must successfully complete a preventive medicine [[medical residency]] program following a one-year [[internship]]. Following that, the physician must pass the preventive medicine board examination. The residency program is at least two years in length and includes completion of a  [[master's degree]] in [[public health]] (MPH) or equivalent. The board exam takes a full day: the morning session concentrates on general preventive medicine questions, while the afternoon session concentrates on the one of the three areas of specialization that the applicant has studied.
In addition, there are two subspecialty areas of certification:
* [[Medical toxicology]] (MT)
* Undersea and [[hyperbaric]] medicine (UHB), formerly "undersea medicine"
These certifications require sitting for an examination following successful completion of an MT or UHB fellowship and prior board certification in one of the 24 ABMS-recognized specialties.
==Screening for diseases==
{{main|Screening (medicine)}}
''Preventive health screening'' has long been advocated as one of the most important health care strategies to facilitate early diagnosis and treatment, improve quality of life, and prevent premature death.<ref name="pmid28701439">{{cite journal| author=Bell NR, Grad R, Dickinson JA, Singh H, Moore AE, Kasperavicius D | display-authors=etal| title=Better decision making in preventive health screening: Balancing benefits and harms. | journal=Can Fam Physician | year= 2017 | volume= 63 | issue= 7 | pages= 521-524 | pmid=28701439 | doi= | pmc=5507224 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28701439  }} </ref>
Expanding the delivery of preventive services of proven value would enable millions of Americans to live longer, healthier, and more fulfilling lives.<ref>Partnership for Prevention (2007). Partnership for Prevention. Preventive Care: A National Profile on Use, Disparities, and Health Benefits. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Available at https://www.rwjf.org/en/library/research/2007/08/preventive-care-national-profile-on-use.html</ref>
[[Annual wellness visit]]s may increase screening.
==Prophylaxis==
''Prophylaxis'' ({{lang-el|προφυλάσσω}} ''to guard or prevent beforehand'') is any medical or [[public health]] procedure whose purpose is to prevent, rather than treat or cure a disease. In general terms, prophylactic measures are divided between ''primary'' prophylaxis (to prevent the development of a disease) and ''secondary'' prophylaxis (whereby the disease has already developed and the patient is protected against worsening of this process).
===Examples===
Some specific examples of prophylaxis include:
*Many [[vaccine]]s are prophylactic, vaccines such as [[polio vaccine]], [[smallpox vaccine]], [[measles vaccine]], [[mumps vaccine]] and others have greatly reduced many childhood diseases; [[HPV vaccine]]s prevent certain cancers; [[influenza vaccine]].
*[[Birth control]] methods are used to prevent [[unwanted pregnancy]]. [[Condom]]s, for instance, are sometimes [[Euphemism|euphemistically]] referred to as "prophylactics" because of their use to prevent [[pregnancy]] as well as the transmission of [[sexually transmitted infection]]s.
*Daily and moderate [[physical exercise]] in various forms can be called prophylactic because it can maintain or improve one's health. [[utility cycling|Cycling for transport]] appears to very significantly improve health by reducing risk of heart diseases, various cancers, muscular- and skeletal diseases, and overall mortality.<ref name=Anderson_2000>{{cite journal |author=Lars Bo Andersen et al. |title=All-cause mortality associated with physical activity during leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |year=2000 |month=June |volume=160 |issue=11 |pages=1621–8 |doi=10.1001/archinte.160.11.1621 |pmid=10847255}}</ref>
*Eating plenty of fruits and vegetables each day may be prophylactic. It may reduce the risk of heart disease <ref>{{cite web|last=United States Department of Agriculture|title=Why is it important to eat fruit?|url=http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/fruits-why.html|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|accessdate=8 February 2012}}</ref>.
*[[Fluoride therapy]] and [[tooth cleaning]], either at home or by a professional, are parts of dental prophylaxis or oral prophylaxis.
*[[Antibiotic]]s are sometimes used prophylactically: For example, during the [[2001 anthrax attacks]] scare in the United States, patients believed to be exposed were given [[ciprofloxacin]]. In similar manner, the use of antibiotic ointments on burns and other wounds is prophylactic. Antibiotics are also given prophylactically just before some medical procedures such as pacemaker insertion.<ref>{{cite journal |author=de Oliveira JC, Martinelli M, D'Orio Nishioka SA, ''et al.'' |title=Efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis prior to the implantation of pacemakers and cardioverter-defibrillators: Results of a large, prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial |journal=Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology |year=2009 |volume=2 |pages=29–34 |doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.108.795906|pmid=19808441 |issue=1}}</ref>
*[[Tricyclic antidepressants]] (TCAs) may, ''with caution'', be an example of a [[chronic (medicine)|chronic]] migraine preventive (see [[amitriptyline]] and [[migraine#Preventive drugs|migraines' prevention by medicine]]).
*[[antimalarial drug|Antimalarials]] such as [[chloroquine]] and [[mefloquine]] are used both in treatment and as prophylaxis by visitors to countries where [[malaria]] is endemic to prevent the development of the [[parasitic]] ''[[Plasmodium]]'', which cause [[malaria]].
*Mechanical measures (such as [[graduated compression stockings]] or [[intermittent pneumatic compression]]) and drugs (such as [[low-molecular-weight heparin]], unfractionated [[heparin]], and [[fondaparinux]]) may be used in immobilized [[hospital]] patients at risk of [[venous thromboembolism]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1059/0003-4819-155-9-201111010-00011| volume = 155| issue = 9| pages = 625–632| author = Qaseem A, Chou R, Humphrey LL, ''et al''. | title = Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis in Hospitalized Patients: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine| year = 2011 | url = http://www.annals.org/content/155/9/625.abstract| pmid=22041951}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1059/0003-4819-155-9-201111010-00008| volume = 155| issue = 9| pages = 602–615| author = Lederle FA, Zylla D, MacDonald R, ''et al''. | title = Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis in Hospitalized Medical Patients and Those With Stroke: A Background Review for an American College of Physicians Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | year = 2011 | url = http://www.annals.org/content/155/9/602.abstract| pmid=22041949}}</ref><ref name="Kahn">{{cite journal|author= Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, ''et al''.|title= Prevention of VTE in Nonsurgical Patients: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines |journal=Chest|volume=141|issue=2 suppl|pages= e195S–e226S|year=2012|month= February|pmid=22315261|doi=10.1378/chest.11-2296}}</ref>
*Risk reducing or prophylactic [[mastectomies]] may be carried out for carriers of the [[BRCA mutation]] gene to minimise the risk of developing [[breast cancer]].
* Early and exclusive [[breastfeeding]] provides immunological protection against infectious diseases and well as reduced risk of chronic diseases for both mother and child.<ref>Ip S, Chung M, Raman G, ChewP, Magula N, DeVine D, Litt M, Trikalinos T, Lau J. Breastfeeding and maternal and infant health outcomes in developed countries. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment Number 153. 2007 April; AHRQ Publication No. 07-E007.</ref>
* [[Polypill]] for prevention of e.g. [[cardiovascular disease]].
* [[Potassium iodide]] is used prophylactically to protect the [[thyroid gland]] from absorbing inhaled or ingested [[radioactive iodine]], which may lead to the development of [[thyroid cancer]]; radioactive iodine may be released into the environment in the event of an accident at a nuclear power plant, or the detonation of a nuclear explosive (see [[potassium iodide#Thyroid protection due to nuclear accidents and emergencies|thyroid protection due to nuclear accidents and emergencies]]).
*Prophylaxis may be administered as oral medication. Oral prophylaxis includes: PEP, nPEP, or PrEP. PEP stands for post-exposure prophylaxis used in an occupational setting e.g., to prevent the spread of HIV or Hepatitis C from patient to staff following an accidental needlestick. nPEP is non-occupational post-exposure prophylaxis. nPEP may be used in a sexual or injection exposure to HIV, hepatitis, or other infectious agents; for example, during intercourse, if the condom breaks and one partner is HIV-positive, nPEP will help to decrease the probability that the HIV-negative partner becomes infected with HIV. (An nPEP is sometimes known as a PEPse - i.e. post-exposure prophylaxis sexual encounter.)  PrEP is a measure taken daily (before, during, and after) possible exposure; for example, by a person who inconsistently uses condoms during sex with a partner who may have an HIV infection.
==Limitations==
Since preventive medicine deals with healthy individuals or populations the costs and potential harms from interventions need even more careful examination than in treatment.  For an intervention to be applied widely it generally needs to be affordable and highly cost effective.
For instance, [[intrauterine device]]s (IUD) are highly effective and highly cost effective contraceptives, however where [[universal health care]] is not available the initial cost may be a barrier.<ref name=Speidel>{{cite journal|journal = Contraception | year = 2008 | month = September | title = The Potential of Long-acting Reversible Contraception to Decrease Unintended Pregnancy | author = J. Joseph Speidel, Cynthia C. Harper, and Wayne C. Shields | url = http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/contraception-journal/september-2008 }}</ref>  IUDs work for several years (3 to 7 or more) and cost less over a year or two's time than most other reversible contraceptive methods.<ref name=Trussell2009>{{cite journal|journal = Contraception|year = 2009| volume=79|issue = 1| pmid=19041435| pages = 5–14| title = Cost effectiveness of contraceptives in the United States | author = James Trussell, Anjana Lalla, Quan Doan, Eileen Reyes, Lionel Pinto, Joseph Gricar|doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2008.08.003}}</ref>  They are also highly cost effective, saving health insurers and the public significant costs in [[unwanted pregnancies]].<ref name=Trussell2009 />  Making contraceptives available with no up front cost is one way to increase usage, improving health and saving money.<ref name=Monea2011>{{cite journal | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | year = 2011 | month = June | volume = 43 | author = Monea J, Thomas A | title = Unintended pregnancy and taxpayer spending | pages = 88–93 | doi = 10.1363/4308811 | issue = 2 | pmid = 21651707}}</ref>
Preventive solutions may be less profitable and therefore less attractive to makers and marketers of pharmaceuticals and medical devices.  Birth control pills which are taken every day and may take in a thousand dollars over ten years may generate more profits than an IUD, which despite a huge initial markup only generates a few hundred dollars over the same period.<ref name=Speidel />
==Leading cause of preventable death==
{{main|List of preventable causes of death}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Leading causes of preventable death worldwide as of the year 2001<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ |title=Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data |journal=Lancet |volume=367 |issue=9524 |pages=1747–57 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16731270 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68770-9 |url=}}</ref>
! Cause
! Deaths caused (millions per year)
|-
|[[Hypertension]]
| 7.8
|-
|[[health effects of tobacco|Smoking]]
| 5.0
|-
|[[hypercholesterolemia|High cholesterol]]
| 3.9
|-
|[[Malnutrition]]
| 3.8
|-
|[[Sexually transmitted infection]]s
| 3.0
|-
|Poor [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]
| 2.8
|-
|[[Overweight]] and [[obesity]]
| 2.5
|-
|[[sedentary lifestyle|Physical inactivity]]
| 2.0
|-
|[[long-term effects of alcohol|Alcohol]]
| 1.9
|-
| [[Indoor air pollution]] from solid fuels
| 1.8
|-
|[[Waterborne diseases|Unsafe water]] and poor [[sanitation]]
| 1.6
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Leading preventive interventions that reduce deaths in children 0–5 years old worldwide<ref>{{cite journal |author= Jones G, Steketee R, Black R, Bhutta Z, Morris S, and the Bellagio Child Survival Study Group* |title=How many child deaths can we prevent this year?|journal=Lancet |volume=362|issue=9524 |pages=1747–57 |year=2003 |month=July 5, 2003}}</ref>
! Intervention
! Percent of all child deaths preventable
|-
|[[Breastfeeding]]
| 13
|-
|[[Insecticide-treated materials]]
| 7
|-
|[[Complementary feeding]]
| 6
|-
|[[Zinc]]
| 4
|-
|[[Clean delivery]]
| 4
|-
|[[Hib vaccine]]
| 4
|-
|[[Water, sanitation, hygiene]]
| 3
|-
|[[Antenatal steroids]]
| 3
|-
|[[Newborn temperature management]]
| 2
|-
| [[Vitamin A]]
| 2
|-
|[[Tetanus toxoid]]
| 2
|-
| [[Nevirapine and replacement feeding]]
| 2
|-
| [[Antibiotics for premature rupture of membranes]]
| 1
|-
| [[Measles vaccine]]
| 1
|-
| [[Antimalarial intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy]]
| <1%
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Leading causes of preventable deaths in the United States in the year 2000<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL |title=Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000 |journal=JAMA |volume=291 |issue=10 |pages=1238–45 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=15010446 |doi=10.1001/jama.291.10.1238 |url=http://www.csdp.org/research/1238.pdf}}</ref>
! Cause
! Deaths caused
! % of all deaths
|-
| [[health effects of tobacco|Tobacco smoking]]
| 435,000
| 18.1
|-
| Poor diet and physical inactivity
| 365,000
| 15.2
|-
| [[long-term effects of alcohol|Alcohol consumption]]
| 85,000
| 3.5
|-
| [[Infectious disease]]s
| 75,000
| 3.1
|-
| [[Toxicant]]s
| 55,000
| 2.3
|-
| [[Traffic collision]]s
| 43,000
| 1.8
|-
| [[gun violence in the United States|Firearm incidents]]
| 29,000
| 1.2
|-
| [[Sexually transmitted infection]]s
| 20,000
| 0.8
|-
| [[Drug abuse]]
| 17,000
| 0.7
|}


==As a medical specialty==
==As a medical specialty==
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==Rose's theorem==
==Rose's theorem==
'''Rose's Theorem''' states that "a large number of people at small risk may give rise to more cases of disease than a small number who are at high risk."<ref>Rose, G.: ''The Strategy of Preventive Medicine.'' Oxford, England, Oxford University Press; 1992.</ref>
'''Rose's Theorem''' states that "a large number of people at small risk may give rise to more cases of disease than a small number who are at high risk."<ref>Rose, G.: ''The Strategy of Preventive Medicine.'' Oxford, England, Oxford University Press; 1992.</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Medicine}}
* [[Post-exposure prophylaxis]]
* [[Pre-exposure prophylaxis]]
* [[Prevention (medical)]]
== References==
{{reflist|2}}


==References==
* Sackett DL. The arrogance of preventive medicine. CMAJ. 2004;167:363-4.
<div class="references-small">
* Gérvas J, Pérez Fernández M. Los límites de la prevención clínica. AMF. 2007; 3(6):352-60.
<references/>
* [http://www.msc.es/biblioPublic/publicaciones/recursos_propios/resp/revista_cdrom/vol81/Vol81_4/RS814C_345.pdf Gérvas J, Pérez Fernández M, González de Dios J. Problemas prácticos y éticos de la prevención secundaria. A propósito de dos ejemplos de pediatría. Rev Esp Salud Pública. 2007;81:345-52.]
</div>
* [http://jech.bmj.com/content/62/7/580.full.pdf?sid=8e0e3040-ddc6-4b73-a8b4-a8fd4ad73c12  Starfield B, Hyde J, Gérvas J, Heath I. The concept of prevention: a good idea gone astray? J Epidemiol Community Health. 2008;62(7):580-3.]
* [http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(08)61843-7/fulltext#article_upsell Gérvas J, Starfield B, Heath I. Is clinical prevention better than cure? Lancet. 2008;372:1997-9.]
* [http://pub.bsalut.net/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1033&context=risai Gérvas J, Pérez Fernández M. Los daños provocados por la prevención y por las actividades preventivas. RISAI. 2009; 1(4).]
* [http://www.ccs.uel.br/espacoparasaude/v11n1/abuso.pdf Gérvas J. Abuso de la prevención clínica. El cribaje del cáncer de mama como ejemplo. Rev Espaço Saùde. 2009; 11(1):49-53.]
* [http://www.equipocesca.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/innovation-2008-eur-j-gen-pract.pdf Gérvas J, Heath I, Durán A, Gené J; Members of the Seminar of Primary Health Innovation 2008. Clinical prevention: patients' fear and the doctor's guilt. Eur J Gen Pract. 2009; 15(3):122-4.]
* [http://www.thecochranelibrary.com/details/editorial/983199/Considerable-uncertainty-remains-in-the-evidence-for-primary-prevention-of-cardi.html Heneghan C. Considerable uncertainty remains in the evidence for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (editorial). The Cochrane Library 2011 (19 Jan).]


==External links==
{{Public health}}
*[http://acpm.org/apmr.htm Association of Preventive Medicine Residents]
{{Medicine}}
*[http://www.uspreventivemedicine.com US Preventive Medicine]
*[http://www.acpm.org American College of Preventive Medicine]
*[http://www.abms.org/ American Board of Medical Specialties]
*[http://www.abprevmed.org/ American Board of Preventive Medicine]
*[http://www.acvpm.org/cgi-bin/start/index.htm American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine]


[[Category:Medicine]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Preventive medicine}}
[[Category:Prevention| ]]
[[Category:Medical specialties]]
[[Category:Medical doctors by specialty]]
[[Category:Medical terms]]
[[Category:Preventive medicine]]


[[ar:طب وقائي]]
[[bg:Превантивна медицина]]
[[ca:Prevenció de la malaltia]]
[[cs:Prevence]]
[[de:Krankheitsprävention]]
[[es:Medicina preventiva]]
[[es:Medicina preventiva]]
[[eo:Prevento]]
[[eu:Prebentzio (medikuntza)]]
[[fr:Prophylaxie]]
[[fr:Prophylaxie]]
[[hi:रोगनिरोधन]]
[[he:רפואה מונעת]]
[[lt:Profilaktika]]
[[nl:Preventie]]
[[pl:Profilaktyka zdrowotna]]
[[pt:Medicina preventiva e social]]
[[pt:Medicina preventiva e social]]
[[sr:Превенција]]
[[fi:Preventio]]
[[uk:Профілактична медицина]]
[[zh:預防醫學]]


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List of terms related to Preventive medicine

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

Generally speaking, preventive medicine is the part of medicine engaged with preventing disease rather than curing it. It can be contrasted not only with curative medicine, but also with public health methods (which work at the level of population health rather than individual health).

Professionals involved in the public health aspect of this practice may be involved in entomology, pest control, and public health inspections. Public health inspections can include recreational waters, pools, beaches, food preparation and serving, and industrial hygiene inspections and surveys.

Preventive medicine or preventive care consists of measures taken to prevent diseases,[1] (or injuries) rather than curing them or treating their symptoms. This contrasts in method with curative and palliative medicine, and in scope with public health methods (which work at the level of population health rather than individual health). Occupational medicine operates very often within the preventive medicine.

Levels

Preventive medicine strategies are typically described as taking place at the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary prevention levels. In addition, the term primal prevention has been used to describe all measures taken to ensure fetal well-being and prevent any long-term health consequences from gestational history and/or disease.[2] The rationale for such efforts is the evidence demonstrating the link between fetal well-being, or "primal health," and adult health.[3][4] Primal prevention strategies typically focus on providing future parents with: education regarding the consequences of epigenetic influences on their child,[5] sufficient leave time for both parents, and financial support if required. This includes parenting in infancy as well.

Simple examples of preventive medicine include hand washing, breastfeeding, and immunizations. Preventive care may include examinations and screening tests tailored to an individual's age, health, and family history. For example, a person with a family history of certain cancers or other diseases would begin screening at an earlier age and/or more frequently than those with no such family history. On the other side of preventive medicine, some nonprofit organizations, such as the Northern California Cancer Center, apply epidemiologic research towards finding ways to prevent diseases.

Prevention levels[6] Doctor’s side
Disease
absent present
Patient’s
side 		Illness absent Primary prevention
illness absent
disease absent 		Secondary prevention
illness absent
disease present
present Quaternary prevention
illness present
disease absent 		Tertiary prevention
illness present
disease present

Definitions

Level Definition
Primary prevention Methods to avoid occurrence of disease.[7] Most population-based health promotion efforts are of this type.
Secondary prevention Methods to diagnose and treat existent disease in early stages before it causes significant morbidity.[8]
Tertiary prevention Methods to reduce negative impact of extant disease by restoring function and reducing disease-related complications.[9]
Quaternary prevention Methods to mitigate or avoid results of unnecessary or excessive interventions in the health system.[10]

Universal, selective, and indicated

Gordon (1987) in the area of disease prevention,[11] and later Kumpfer and Baxley in the area of substance use[12] proposed a three-tiered preventive intervention classification system: universal, selective, and indicated prevention. Amongst others, this typology has gained favour and is used by the U.S. Institute of Medicine, the NIDA and the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.

Tier Definition
Universal prevention Involves whole population (nation, local community, school, district) and aims to prevent or delay the abuse of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. All individuals, without screening, are provided with information and skills needed to prevent the problem.
Selective prevention Involves groups whose risk of developing problems of alcohol abuse or dependence is above average. Subgroups may be distinguished by traits such as age, gender, family history, or economic status. For example, drug campaigns in recreational settings.
Indicated prevention Involves a screening process, and aims to identify individuals who exhibit early signs of substance abuse and other problem behaviours. Identifiers may include falling grades among students, known problem consumption or conduct disorders, alienation from parents, school, and positive peer groups etc.

Outside the scope of this three-tier model is environmental prevention. Environmental prevention approaches are typically managed at the regulatory or community level and focus on ways to deter drug consumption. Prohibition and bans (e.g. on smoking, alcohol advertising) may be viewed as the ultimate environmental restriction. However, in practice, environmental preventions programs embrace various initiatives at the macro and micro level, from government monopolies for alcohol sales through roadside sobriety or drug tests, worker/pupil/student drug testing, increased policing in sensitive settings (near schools, at rock festivals), and legislative guidelines aimed at precipitating punishments (warnings, penalties, fines).

Professionals

Professionals involved in the public health aspect of this practice may be involved in entomology, pest control, and public health inspections. Public health inspections can include recreational waters, swimming pools, beaches, food preparation and serving, and industrial hygiene inspections and surveys.

In the United States, preventive medicine is a medical specialty, one of the 24 recognized by the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS). It encompasses three areas of specialization:

  • General preventive medicine and public health
  • Aerospace medicine
  • Occupational medicine

To become board-certified in one of the preventive medicine areas of specialization, a licensed U.S. physician (M.D. or D.O.) must successfully complete a preventive medicine medical residency program following a one-year internship. Following that, the physician must pass the preventive medicine board examination. The residency program is at least two years in length and includes completion of a master's degree in public health (MPH) or equivalent. The board exam takes a full day: the morning session concentrates on general preventive medicine questions, while the afternoon session concentrates on the one of the three areas of specialization that the applicant has studied.

In addition, there are two subspecialty areas of certification:

These certifications require sitting for an examination following successful completion of an MT or UHB fellowship and prior board certification in one of the 24 ABMS-recognized specialties.

Screening for diseases

Main article: Screening (medicine)

Preventive health screening has long been advocated as one of the most important health care strategies to facilitate early diagnosis and treatment, improve quality of life, and prevent premature death.[13]

Expanding the delivery of preventive services of proven value would enable millions of Americans to live longer, healthier, and more fulfilling lives.[14]

Annual wellness visits may increase screening.

Prophylaxis

Prophylaxis (Template:Lang-el to guard or prevent beforehand) is any medical or public health procedure whose purpose is to prevent, rather than treat or cure a disease. In general terms, prophylactic measures are divided between primary prophylaxis (to prevent the development of a disease) and secondary prophylaxis (whereby the disease has already developed and the patient is protected against worsening of this process).

Examples

Some specific examples of prophylaxis include:

Limitations

Since preventive medicine deals with healthy individuals or populations the costs and potential harms from interventions need even more careful examination than in treatment. For an intervention to be applied widely it generally needs to be affordable and highly cost effective.

For instance, intrauterine devices (IUD) are highly effective and highly cost effective contraceptives, however where universal health care is not available the initial cost may be a barrier.[22] IUDs work for several years (3 to 7 or more) and cost less over a year or two's time than most other reversible contraceptive methods.[23] They are also highly cost effective, saving health insurers and the public significant costs in unwanted pregnancies.[23] Making contraceptives available with no up front cost is one way to increase usage, improving health and saving money.[24]

Preventive solutions may be less profitable and therefore less attractive to makers and marketers of pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Birth control pills which are taken every day and may take in a thousand dollars over ten years may generate more profits than an IUD, which despite a huge initial markup only generates a few hundred dollars over the same period.[22]

Leading cause of preventable death

Main article: List of preventable causes of death
Leading causes of preventable death worldwide as of the year 2001[25]
Cause Deaths caused (millions per year)
Hypertension 7.8
Smoking 5.0
High cholesterol 3.9
Malnutrition 3.8
Sexually transmitted infections 3.0
Poor diet 2.8
Overweight and obesity 2.5
Physical inactivity 2.0
Alcohol 1.9
Indoor air pollution from solid fuels 1.8
Unsafe water and poor sanitation 1.6
Leading preventive interventions that reduce deaths in children 0–5 years old worldwide[26]
Intervention Percent of all child deaths preventable
Breastfeeding 13
Insecticide-treated materials 7
Complementary feeding 6
Zinc 4
Clean delivery 4
Hib vaccine 4
Water, sanitation, hygiene 3
Antenatal steroids 3
Newborn temperature management 2
Vitamin A 2
Tetanus toxoid 2
Nevirapine and replacement feeding 2
Antibiotics for premature rupture of membranes 1
Measles vaccine 1
Antimalarial intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy <1%
Leading causes of preventable deaths in the United States in the year 2000[27]
Cause Deaths caused % of all deaths
Tobacco smoking 435,000 18.1
Poor diet and physical inactivity 365,000 15.2
Alcohol consumption 85,000 3.5
Infectious diseases 75,000 3.1
Toxicants 55,000 2.3
Traffic collisions 43,000 1.8
Firearm incidents 29,000 1.2
Sexually transmitted infections 20,000 0.8
Drug abuse 17,000 0.7

As a medical specialty

In the United States, preventive medicine is a medical specialty, one of the 24 recognized by the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS). It encompasses three areas of specialization:

  • General preventive medicine and public health
  • Aerospace medicine
  • Occupational medicine

In order to become board-certified in one of the preventive medicine areas of specialization, a licensed U.S. physician (M.D. or D.O.) must successfully complete a preventive medicine medical residency program following a one year internship. Following that, the physician must complete a year of practice in that special area and pass the preventive medicine board examination. The residency program is at least two years in length, and includes completion of a post-graduate masters degree in public health (MPH) or equivalent. The board exam takes an entire day: The morning session concentrates on general preventive medicine questions. The afternoon session concentrates on the one of the three areas of specialization that the applicant has studied.

In addition, there are two subspecialty areas of certification:

  • Medical toxicology (MT)
  • Undersea and hyperbaric medicine (UHB), formerly "undersea medicine"

These certifications require sitting for an examination following successful completion of an MT or UHB fellowship and prior board certification in one of the 24 ABMS-recognized specialties

Rose's theorem

Rose's Theorem states that "a large number of people at small risk may give rise to more cases of disease than a small number who are at high risk."[28]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Preventive+Medicine at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
  2. ↑ Primal Research Centre, London
  3. ↑ Primal Health Research Databank
  4. ↑ Effect of In Utero and Early-Life Conditions on Adult Health and Disease, by P.D.Gluckman et al., N ENGL J MED 359;1
  5. ↑ Origins: How the nine months before birth shape the rest of your life, by Annie Murphy Paul, Time magazine, 176.14, 2010
  6. ↑ Kuehlein T, Sghedoni D, Visentin G, Gérvas J, Jamoule M. Quaternary prevention: a task of the general practitioner. PrimaryCare. 2010; 10(18):350-4.
  7. ↑ Primary+Prevention at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
  8. ↑ Secondary+Prevention at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
  9. ↑ Tertiary+Prevention at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
  10. ↑ Gofrit ON, Shemer J, Leibovici D, Modan B, Shapira SC. Quaternary prevention: a new look at an old challenge. Isr Med Assoc J. 2000;2(7):498-500.
  11. ↑ Gordon, R. (1987), ‘An operational classification of disease prevention’, in Steinberg, J. A. and Silverman, M. M. (eds.), Preventing Mental Disorders, Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1987.
  12. ↑ Kumpfer, K. L., and Baxley, G. B. (1997), 'Drug abuse prevention: What works?', National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville.
  13. ↑ Bell NR, Grad R, Dickinson JA, Singh H, Moore AE, Kasperavicius D; et al. (2017). "Better decision making in preventive health screening: Balancing benefits and harms". Can Fam Physician. 63 (7): 521–524. PMC 5507224. PMID 28701439.
  14. ↑ Partnership for Prevention (2007). Partnership for Prevention. Preventive Care: A National Profile on Use, Disparities, and Health Benefits. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Available at https://www.rwjf.org/en/library/research/2007/08/preventive-care-national-profile-on-use.html
  15. ↑ Lars Bo Andersen; et al. (2000). "All-cause mortality associated with physical activity during leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work". Archives of Internal Medicine. 160 (11): 1621–8. doi:10.1001/archinte.160.11.1621. PMID 10847255. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ United States Department of Agriculture. "Why is it important to eat fruit?". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
  17. ↑ de Oliveira JC, Martinelli M, D'Orio Nishioka SA; et al. (2009). "Efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis prior to the implantation of pacemakers and cardioverter-defibrillators: Results of a large, prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial". Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology. 2 (1): 29–34. doi:10.1161/CIRCEP.108.795906. PMID 19808441.
  18. ↑ Qaseem A, Chou R, Humphrey LL; et al. (2011). "Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis in Hospitalized Patients: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians". Annals of Internal Medicine. 155 (9): 625–632. doi:10.1059/0003-4819-155-9-201111010-00011. PMID 22041951.
  19. ↑ Lederle FA, Zylla D, MacDonald R; et al. (2011). "Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis in Hospitalized Medical Patients and Those With Stroke: A Background Review for an American College of Physicians Clinical Practice Guideline". Annals of Internal Medicine. 155 (9): 602–615. doi:10.1059/0003-4819-155-9-201111010-00008. PMID 22041949.
  20. ↑ Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS; et al. (2012). "Prevention of VTE in Nonsurgical Patients: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines". Chest. 141 (2 suppl): e195S–e226S. doi:10.1378/chest.11-2296. PMID 22315261. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  21. ↑ Ip S, Chung M, Raman G, ChewP, Magula N, DeVine D, Litt M, Trikalinos T, Lau J. Breastfeeding and maternal and infant health outcomes in developed countries. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment Number 153. 2007 April; AHRQ Publication No. 07-E007.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 J. Joseph Speidel, Cynthia C. Harper, and Wayne C. Shields (2008). "The Potential of Long-acting Reversible Contraception to Decrease Unintended Pregnancy". Contraception. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 James Trussell, Anjana Lalla, Quan Doan, Eileen Reyes, Lionel Pinto, Joseph Gricar (2009). "Cost effectiveness of contraceptives in the United States". Contraception. 79 (1): 5–14. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2008.08.003. PMID 19041435.
  24. ↑ Monea J, Thomas A (2011). "Unintended pregnancy and taxpayer spending". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 43 (2): 88–93. doi:10.1363/4308811. PMID 21651707. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  25. ↑ Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ (2006). "Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data". Lancet. 367 (9524): 1747–57. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68770-9. PMID 16731270. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  26. ↑ Jones G, Steketee R, Black R, Bhutta Z, Morris S, and the Bellagio Child Survival Study Group* (2003). "How many child deaths can we prevent this year?". Lancet. 362 (9524): 1747–57. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL (2004). "Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000" (PDF). JAMA. 291 (10): 1238–45. doi:10.1001/jama.291.10.1238. PMID 15010446. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  28. ↑ Rose, G.: The Strategy of Preventive Medicine. Oxford, England, Oxford University Press; 1992.

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