Hypertension in adolescents
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Dinesh Shah, M.B.B.S, José Eduardo Riceto Loyola Junior, M.D.[2]
Synonyms and keywords:
Overview
Hypertension in adolescents is an increasingly recognized condition and is associated with both current target-organ injury and future adult cardiovascular risk. In adolescents, primary hypertension is now the predominant form of hypertension, particularly in those with obesity, excess adiposity, family history of hypertension, and other cardiometabolic risk factors. Accurate blood pressure measurement, confirmation of persistent elevation, and appropriate evaluation for secondary causes and target-organ damage are essential because childhood and adolescent hypertension often tracks into adulthood.
Classification
Pediatric hypertension may be classified according to the AAP (American Academy of Pediatrics):[1]
| Age<13 years | Age>=13 years | |
|---|---|---|
|
<90th percentile percentile for age, sex, and height |
<120/<80 mmHg | |
|
Elevated or High Normal Blood Pressure |
≥90th percentile to <95th percentile or 120/<80 mmHg to <95th percentile, whichever is lower |
120/<80 to 129/<80 mmHg |
|
Stage 1 Hypertension |
≥95th percentile to <95th percentile + 12 mmHg, or 130/80 to 139/89 mmHg, whichever is lower. |
130/80 to 139/89 mmHg |
|
Stage 2 Hypertension |
≥95th percentile + 12 mmHg, or ≥140/90 mmHg, whichever is lower |
≥140/90 mmHg |
Pathophysiology
- The pathophysiology of hypertension can be either primary, which is multifactorial, or secondary, in which hypertension develops as a consequence of other diseases.
- Essential hypertension can be triggered by multiple factors such as: obesity, insulin resistance, activation of sympathetic nervous system, changes in sodium homeostasis, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system changes, disorders in the vascular smooth muscle structure or function, elevated uric acid levels, fetal programming and genetic factors.[2]
Causes
Based on etiology, hypertension in children can be classified into 2 groups:[3]
- 1. Primary hypertension - No specific cause known
- 2. Secondary hypertension - Common causes include:[4]
- Renal diseases
- Renal artery stenosis
- Obstructive sleep apnea[5]
- Related to drugs - glucocorticoids, CNS stimulants
- Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
- Pheochromocytoma
- Hyperthyroidism
- Coarctation of the aorta
Common causes of pediatric hypertension by pediatric age group
These conditions are displayed in order of prevalence[6][7][8]
One to six years:
- Renal parenchymal disease; renal vascular disease; endocrine causes; coarctation of the aorta; essential hypertension
Six to twelve years:
- Renal parenchymal disease; essential hypertension; renal vascular disease; endocrine causes; coarctation of the aorta; iatrogenic illness
Twelve to eighteen years
- Essential hypertension; iatrogenic illness; renal parenchymal disease; renal vascular disease; endocrine causes; coarctation of the aorta
Differentiating Hypertension in Adolescents From Other Diseases
Hypertension in adolescents may be a symptom of other underlying and undiagnosed conditions. Thus, these patients require a detailed medical assessment. Secondary causes were discussed above and include: renal diseases, drugs, adrenal diseases and hyperthyroidism.
Epidemiology and Demographics
- According to the WHO, an estimated 1.13 billion people worldwide have hypertension.
- Hypertension commonly affects individuals older than 65 years of age, especially living in low or middle-income countries.
- In a study from the University of Texas' McGovern Medical School, the prevalence of pediatric elevated hypertension from 10 to 17 years of age was 16.3%, stage 1 hypertension was 10.6% and stage 2 hypertension 2.4%.[9]
- Higher prevalence was noted in patients who were classified as obese or overweight.[9]
- Prevalence of childhood hypertension has increased from 1994 to 2018.[10]
- A systematic review estimated that in 2015, the prevalence of childhood hypertension was 4.32% among children aged 6 years. Patients aged 19 years had a prevalence of 3.28%. The peak of prevalence in hypertension occurred at age 14 years.[10]
Risk Factors
- The most common risk factor in the development of hypertension in adolescents is obesity.
- Other important risk factors include family history of hypertension, low birth weight, chronic kidney disease, diabetes, sleep-disordered breathing, and exposure to medications or substances that raise blood pressure.[1]
- A focused medication and substance history should specifically assess stimulants, glucocorticoids, hormonal therapies, decongestants, bronchodilators, illicit substances, and other agents that may elevate blood pressure.[1]
Screening
- The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force concludes that the current evidence is insufficient to assess the balance of benefits and harms of screening for high blood pressure in asymptomatic children and adolescents aged 3 to 18 years.[11]
- The 2017 American Academy of Pediatrics guideline recommends measuring blood pressure annually beginning at 3 years of age and at every health care encounter in children and adolescents with obesity, kidney disease, diabetes, a history of aortic arch obstruction or coarctation, or use of medications known to increase blood pressure.[1]
- According to the 2016 European Society of Hypertension guidelines, screening for hypertension in asymptomatic children and adolescents is recommended every two years beginning at three years of age.[12]
Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
- If left untreated, children with hypertension may progress to develop atherosclerotic heart disease in adulthood. They have also increased risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality as well as left ventricular hypertrophy.
- Renal complications such as chronic kidney disease may develop.
- Ophthalmologic compromise is also a possible with hypertensive retinopathy being a potential complication.
- Children and adolescents with severe hypertension are at risk of developing hypertensive encephalopathy, seizures, cerebrovascular accidents, and congestive heart failure.[13]
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Study of Choice
- Hypertension in adolescents should be suspected on the basis of properly performed office blood pressure measurements and confirmed with ambulatory blood pressure monitoring when indicated.[14]
- Office blood pressure should be measured in the right arm with an appropriately sized cuff after the patient has been seated quietly, and elevated oscillometric readings should be confirmed by auscultation.[1][11]
- Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring is recommended to confirm hypertension in children and adolescents with persistent elevated office readings or stage 1 hypertension across repeated visits, and it is particularly useful for identifying white-coat hypertension, masked hypertension, and abnormal nocturnal blood pressure patterns.[1][15]
History and Symptoms
- The history should assess birth history, growth, renal and urologic disease, sleep-disordered breathing, medication and substance exposures, diet and physical activity, and family history of hypertension, kidney disease, and premature cardiovascular disease.[1]
- Common symptoms of hypertensive emergencies include headache, altered sensorium, seizures, vomiting, focal neurologic complaints and visual disturbances.[1]
- The physical examination should include height, weight, body mass index, repeat blood pressure measurement with correct cuff size, pulse examination, and focused assessment for coarctation of the aorta, endocrine disease, and other secondary causes.[1]
Physical Examination
- Common physical examination findings of hypertension include retinal vascular changes on fundoscopy, cardiac heave, and laterally displaced point of maximal impulse (PMI) due to left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH).[1]
- The physical examination should include height, weight, body mass index, repeat blood pressure measurement with correct cuff size, pulse examination, and focused assessment for coarctation of the aorta, endocrine disease, and other secondary causes.[1]
Laboratory Findings
- There are no laboratory tests that by themselves diagnose hypertension.[1]
- Initial evaluation commonly includes urinalysis, serum electrolytes, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and a lipid profile.[1]
- In adolescents with obesity, additional evaluation for cardiometabolic comorbidity should include screening for abnormal glucose metabolism and liver disease.[1]
- Renin, aldosterone, thyroid testing, drug screening, sleep evaluation, and other specialized tests should be obtained selectively when the history, physical examination, age, or severity of hypertension suggests a secondary cause.[1]
- Renal ultrasonography is recommended in younger children and in those with abnormal urinalysis, impaired renal function, or suspicion for renovascular or structural renal disease.[1]
Electrocardiogram
- Electrocardiography is not recommended as the primary method to assess left ventricular hypertrophy in pediatric hypertension because of limited sensitivity.[1]
- Findings on an ECG suggestive of hypertension include left ventricular hypertrophy, ST depression and T wave inversion.
X-ray
- Chest radiography is not part of the routine evaluation of hypertension in adolescents and should be reserved for specific clinical indications.[1]
Echocardiography or Ultrasound
- Echocardiography is not diagnostic of hypertension, but it is useful for evaluation of hypertension-mediated target-organ damage, particularly left ventricular hypertrophy, and should be considered when pharmacologic therapy is being considered.[1]
- Repeat echocardiography may be used selectively to monitor persistent hypertension or previously documented target-organ injury.[1]
CT scan and MRI
- CT or MRI is not used to diagnose hypertension itself but may be used selectively to evaluate suspected secondary causes such as coarctation of the aorta, renovascular disease, or adrenal pathology.[1]
Other Imaging Findings
- There are no other imaging findings associated with hypertension.
Other Diagnostic Studies
- There are no other diagnostic studies associated with hypertension.
Treatment
The AAP guideline recommends keeping systolic and diastolic pressure under 90th percentile or <130/80 mmHg in patients aged 13 or older to prevent any cardiovascular events.
Medical Therapy
Lifestyle modifications
- All children and adolescents with hypertension should change their lifestyle for the better.[12]
- Such changes include: weight reduction if obese or overweight, regular physical activity, healthy diet (DASH diet), avoidance of substance use, stress reduction, family-based interventions (involving the whole family on such lifestyle changes can dramatically increase therapeutic adherence).[12]
Pharmacological treatment
- Lifestyle modification is the foundation of treatment for adolescents with elevated blood pressure or hypertension, especially in primary hypertension associated with excess adiposity and other cardiometabolic risk factor.[1]
- Recommended nonpharmacologic therapy includes weight reduction when indicated, regular physical activity, a healthy dietary pattern such as the DASH diet, sodium reduction, sleep optimization, and avoidance of tobacco, alcohol, and other substances that can increase blood pressure.[1][16][14]
- Pharmacologic therapy is indicated for adolescents with symptomatic hypertension, stage 2 hypertension without a clearly modifiable factor, persistent hypertension despite lifestyle intervention, or hypertension associated with chronic kidney disease or diabetes.[1]
- Recommended first-line antihypertensive agents include angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, long-acting calcium channel blockers, and thiazide diuretics.[1]
- Antihypertensive medication should generally be started at a low dose and titrated every 2 to 4 weeks until the blood pressure goal is achieved or dose-limiting adverse effects occur.[1]
- Calcium channel blockers and hydrochlorothiazide are appropriate choices for female adolescents at risk for pregnancy.[12]
- Start at the lowest dose and titrate every 2 to 4 weeks until blood pressure goal is reached.[12]
- Home blood pressure monitoring may be a useful adjunct in follow-up, but ambulatory blood pressure monitoring remains the preferred out-of-office method for confirming hypertension and distinguishing white-coat from masked hypertension in children and adolescents.[1][15][14]
Surgery
Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for children with hypertension. Surgery is usually reserved for children with select adrenal disease or coarctation of aorta.
Primary prevention
Effective measures for the primary prevention of primary hypertension in children include low sodium intake, adhering to the DASH diet, maintaining appropriate body weight, and regular physical activities.
Secondary prevention
After diagnosis, secondary prevention focuses on sustained blood pressure control, treatment adherence, repeated assessment for target-organ damage when indicated, and management of associated cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity, dyslipidemia, diabetes, and sleep-disordered breathing.[1]
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 Flynn JT, Kaelber DC, Baker-Smith CM; et al. (2017). "Clinical Practice Guideline for Screening and Management of High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents". Pediatrics. 140 (3): e20171904. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-1904.
- ↑ Raj M, Krishnakumar R (2013). "Hypertension in children and adolescents: epidemiology and pathogenesis". Indian J Pediatr. 80 Suppl 1: S71–6. doi:10.1007/s12098-012-0851-4. PMID 22941155.
- ↑ Khoury M, Urbina EM (2021). "Hypertension in adolescents: diagnosis, treatment, and implications". Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 5 (5): 357–366. doi:10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30344-8.
- ↑ Friedman K, Wallis T, Maloney KW; et al. (2007). "An unusual cause of pediatric hypertension". J Pediatr. 151: 206.
- ↑ Marcus CL, Greene MG, Carroll JL (1998). "Blood pressure in children with obstructive sleep apnea". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 157: 1098.
- ↑ Flynn JT (2001). "Evaluation and management of hypertension in childhood". Prog Pediatr Cardiol. 12 (2): 177–188. doi:10.1016/s1058-9813(00)00071-0. PMID 11223345.
- ↑ Bartosh SM, Aronson AJ (1999). "Childhood hypertension. An update on etiology, diagnosis, and treatment". Pediatr Clin North Am. 46 (2): 235–52. doi:10.1016/s0031-3955(05)70115-2. PMID 10218072.
- ↑ Flynn JT (2005). "Hypertension in adolescents". Adolesc Med Clin. 16 (1): 11–29. doi:10.1016/j.admecli.2004.10.002. PMID 15844381.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Bell CS, Samuel JP, Samuels JA (2019). "Prevalence of Hypertension in Children". Hypertension. 73 (1): 148–152. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.118.11673. PMC 6291260. PMID 30571555.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Song P, Zhang Y, Yu J, Zha M, Zhu Y, Rahimi K; et al. (2019). "Global Prevalence of Hypertension in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Pediatr. 173 (12): 1154–1163. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3310. PMC 6784751 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 31589252. - ↑ 11.0 11.1 "High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents: Screening". U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 2020.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Riley M, Hernandez AK, Kuznia AL (2018). "High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents". Am Fam Physician. 98 (8): 486–494. PMID 30277729.
- ↑ Luma GB, Spiotta RT (2006). "Hypertension in children and adolescents". Am Fam Physician. 73 (9): 1558–68. PMID 16719248.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Falkner B, Gidding SS, Baker-Smith CM; et al. (2023). "Pediatric Primary Hypertension: An Underrecognized Condition: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Hypertension. 80 (6): e101–e111. doi:10.1161/HYP.0000000000000228.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Flynn JT, Urbina EM, Brady TM; et al. (2022). "Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring in Children and Adolescents: 2022 Update: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Hypertension. 79 (7): e114–e124. doi:10.1161/HYP.0000000000000215.
- ↑ Lurbe E, Wühl E; et al. (2023). "Joint statement for assessing and managing high blood pressure in children and adolescents: Chapter 2. How to manage high blood pressure in children and adolescents". Front Pediatr. 11: 1140617. doi:10.3389/fped.2023.1140617.