Diseases
|
Cyanosis
|
Clinical manifestations
|
Para-clinical findings
|
Gold standard
|
Additional findings
|
Symptoms
|
Physical examination
|
Lab Findings
|
Imaging
|
Peripheral
|
Central
|
Dyspnea
|
Fever
|
Chest pain
|
Clubbing
|
Peripheral edema
|
Auscultation
|
CBC
|
ABG
|
Electrolytes
|
Other
|
X-ray
|
CT scan
|
Other
|
Pulmonary diseases
|
Airway disorder
|
Severe croup
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Stridor
|
Lymphocytosis
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
-
|
Steeple sign
|
Normal
|
Distended hypopharynx during inspiration
|
Clinical findings
|
Intercostal and subcostal retraction, Barking cough
|
Epiglottitis
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Stridor
|
Leukocytosis with neutrophilia
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
-
|
Thumb sign
|
Normal
|
-
|
Laryngoscopy
|
Muffled voice, Drooling
|
Foreign body aspiration
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
Decreased breath sounds, Wheezing
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
-
|
Hyperinflation, Atelectasis, Objects
|
Foreign body entrapment with edema or granulation tissue
|
-
|
Bronchoscopy
|
Mediastinitis
|
Bacterial tracheitis
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
Inspiratory stridor
|
Leukocytosis
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Blood culture, Gram stain
|
Irregular tracheal margin
|
Normal
|
Steeple sign (confusing)
|
Laryngotracheobronchoscopy
|
Brassy cough, Hoarseness
|
Sleep apnea
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Normal
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
-
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Polysomnography
|
Polysomnography
|
Nightmares, Snoring
|
Chronic bronchitis
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
Rales, crackles, Wheeze
|
Leukocytosis
|
↓O2, ↑CO2, Respiratory acidosis
|
Hypokalemia, Hypernatremia
|
Gram stain of sputum
|
Elongated heart, Flattened diaphragms, Prominent hilar vasculature
|
Bronchial wall thickening with increased bronchovascular markings
|
-
|
HRCT
|
Productive cough, Chest tightness
|
Atelectasis
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
Localized diminished breath sounds, Wheeze
|
Leukocytosis
|
↓O2, ↑CO2, Respiratory acidosis
|
Normal
|
-
|
Localized increased opacity, Deviation toward the atelectasis
|
Local crowding of pulmonary vessels and bronchi
|
MRI for distinguishing obstructive from non-obstructive
|
HRCT
|
Cough, Shallow breathing
|
Parenchymal disorder
|
Alveolitis
|
+/-
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
Wheeze, Crackles
|
Leukocytosis, Eosinophilia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
↑ESR, ↑CRP
|
Scattered opacities, Fine reticulation
|
Homogeneous ground-glass opacity
|
-
|
HRCT PLUS Clinical findings
|
Malaise, Chills, Headache
|
Pneumonia
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
Rales, Crackles, Wheeze, Pleural friction rub
|
Leukocytosis with neutrophilia
|
Normal
|
Hyponatremia
|
-
|
Entire lobe consolidated, Air bronchograms
|
Focal ground-glass opacity
|
-
|
HRCT
|
Tachycardia, Bradycardia (Legionella)
|
Asthma (Late)
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
-
|
End expiratory wheeze
|
Eosinophilia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
↑ IgE
|
Atelectasis
|
Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, Bronchiectasis
|
-
|
Spirometry before and after bronchodilator
|
Triad of asthma, nasal polyps, and rash is indicative of aspirin sensitivity.
|
Cystic fibrosis
|
+
|
-
|
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
Wheeze, Crackles
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Increased sweat chloride
|
Sweat chloride test
|
Hyperinflation, Nodules
|
Peribronchial thickening, Bronchiectasis
|
-
|
Sweat chloride test
|
Absent vas deferens
|
COPD
(Severe emphysema)
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
+
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
Reduced breath sounds, Wheeze, Inspiratory crackles
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
Alpha 1-antitrypsin test
|
Elongated heart, Flattened diaphragms, Prominent hilar vasculature
|
Bullae
|
-
|
HRCT
|
Pulmonary hypertension, Right heart failure
|
Tuberculosis
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
Reduced breath sounds, Wheeze, Inspiratory crackles
|
Leukocytosis, ↑Lymphocyte
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Hyponatremia, Hyperkalemia, Hypochloremia
|
PPD, interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA)
|
Dense, homogeneous parenchymal consolidation
|
Nodules with low-density centers and rim enhancement
|
Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/CT (FDG PET/CT)
|
Sputum culture, QuantiFERON-TB Gold (QFT)
|
Loss of appetite, Night sweats
|
Pulmonary fibrosis
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
Inspiratory crackles
|
Anemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)
|
Honeycombing
|
Traction bronchiectasis,
Interlobular septal thickening
|
HRCT
|
HRCT
|
Fatigue, Weight loss
|
Pneumoconiosis
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
-
|
End expiratory wheeze
|
Leukocytosis, Anemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2, Respiratory acidosis
|
Hyper/Hypocalcemia,
Hypermagnesemia
|
-
|
Small to large round nodular opacities
|
Diffuse distribution of small nodules
|
MRI and PET-CT scan
|
CT/HRCT scan
|
Tightness in the chest
|
Lung cancer
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
Absence of breath sounds, Stridor, Wheezing
|
Leukocytosis, Anemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Hyponatremia
|
↑CRP, ↑ESR
|
Pulmonary nodule or mass,
Mediastinal widening
Hilar lymphadenopathy
|
Massive lymphadenopathy, Direct mediastinal invasion
|
MRI, PET-CT scan, Bronchoscopy
|
Low dose computed tomography scan (LDCT)
|
Weight loss, Loss of appetite
|
Acute respiratory distress syndrome
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
Inspiratory crackles
|
Leukopenia/Leukocytosis
|
↓O2, ↓CO2, Respiratory alkalosis
|
Hyponatremia, Hyperkalemia
|
↑BNP, ↑Von Willebrand factor (VWF)
|
Bilateral pulmonary infiltrates (patchy to diffuse)
|
Emphysema, Pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum, Mediastinal lymphadenopathy
|
Invasive Hemodynamic Monitoring (PCWP), Bronchoscopy
|
Chest CT scan
|
Tachypnea, Muscle weakness
|
Pulmonary vascular disorders
|
Massive pulmonary embolism
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
Reduced breath sounds, Crackles, Loud P2
|
Leukocytosis
|
↓O2, ↑CO2, Respiratory acidosis
|
Normal
|
D-dimer, BNP
|
Fleischner sign, Hampton hump, Westermark sign, Pleural effusion
|
Filling defects in the pulmonary vasculature
|
Spiral CT pulmonary angiogram
|
Spiral CT pulmonary angiogram
|
Tachycardia, Shock, Pulmonary hypertension
|
Pulmonary arterio-venous malformation
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
Pulmonary bruit
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2, Respiratory acidosis
|
Normal
|
-
|
One or more rounded or multilobular opacities
|
Connecting vessel in hilum
|
Magnetic resonance angiography, Echocardiography
|
Contrast enhanced magnetic resonance angiography
|
Cerebral arteriovenous malformation
|
Pulmonary hypertension
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
-
|
Tricuspid regurgitation murmur, Pulmonic insufficiency murmur
|
Mild anemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Hypernatremia
|
↑BNP, ↑ANP
|
Right deviated cardiac apex,
Prominent pulmonary artery
|
Ill-defined nodules, Interlobular septal thickening
|
CT pulmonary angiography (CTPA), MRA
|
Cardiac catheterization (PCWP)
|
Fatigue, Inability to exercise
|
Chest wall disorders
|
Flail chest
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
-
|
≥3 adjacent ribs with segmental fractures, >5 adjacent rib fractures
|
Normal
|
-
|
CXR
|
Bruises over chest
|
Pneumothorax
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
Diminished breath sounds
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
-
|
No lung marking on one side, Collapsed lung
|
Loculated air in thoracic cavity
|
M-mode ultrasonography
|
Chest CT scan
|
Tachypnea
|
Disease
|
Peripheral
|
Central
|
Dyspnea
|
Fever
|
Chest pain
|
Clubbing
|
Peripheral edema
|
Auscultation
|
CBC
|
ABG
|
Electrolytes
|
Other
|
X-ray
|
CT scan
|
Other
|
Gold standard
|
Additional findings
|
Cardiac diseases
|
Congenital disorders
|
Atrioventricular canal defect
|
+/-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
-
|
Wheezing,Holosystolic or systolic ejection murmur
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
Cardiomegaly, Increased pulmonary vascular markings
|
Normal
|
Echocardiography, MRI
|
Echocardiography
|
Tachypnea, Lack of appetite, Pale skin color, Excessive sweating
|
Ebstein anomaly
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
Loud S1
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
Cardiomegaly, "Box shape" heart
|
Apical displacement of the septal and posterior leaflets of the tricuspid valve
|
"Atrialisation" of the right ventricle in MRI, Tricuspid regurgitation in echocardiography
|
Echocardiography
|
Fatigue, Palpitations
|
Tetralogy of Fallot
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
Harsh systolic murmur
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
"Boot-shaped" heart with an upturned cardiac apex
|
Aortopulmonary collateral vessels
|
Peripheral pulmonary stenosis and atresia in echocardiography
|
Echocardiography
|
Fainting, Palpitation
|
Pulmonic stenosis
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
Crescendo-decrescendo ejection murmur
|
Schistocyte
|
↓O2
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
Right ventricular hypertrophy, Dilated main pulmonary artery
|
Stenotic segment, Post stenotic dilatation
|
Severity of the stenosis by velocity encoded phase contrast (VEC) cine sequences
|
Echocardiography
|
Fainting, Palpitation
|
Total anomalous pulmonary venous connection
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
-
|
Systolic murmur over the pulmonary area
|
Normal
|
↓O2
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
Snowman sign
|
Anomalous venous return
|
Blind ended left atrium with no connecting veins in echocardiography
|
Echocardiography
|
Pounding heart, Weak pulse, Extreme sleepiness
|
Transposition of the great vessels
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
-
|
Diastolic and Systolic murmur
|
Normal
|
↓O2
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
Cardiomegaly with narrow superior mediastinum (egg on a string sign)
|
Abnormal great vessel anatomy
|
Flow dynamics on Steady-state free precession (SSFP) MRI
|
Echocardiography
|
Lack of appetite, Poor weight gain
|
Truncus arteriosus
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
-
|
Holosystolic or ejection type murmur
|
Normal
|
↓O2
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
Moderate cardiomegaly, pulmonary plethora, Widened mediastinum
|
Single cardiac trunk
|
Anomalous anatomy in MRI
|
Echocardiography
|
Fatigue, Sweating, Pale or cool skin
|
Patent ductus arteriosus
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
-
|
Continuous machinery murmur
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
Cardiomegaly, Aortopulmonary window obsecuration
|
Tortuous morphology of ductus (Krichenko classification)
|
Spiral CT pulmonary angiogram
|
Echocardiography
|
Failure to thrive, Respiratory distress
|
Acquired disorders
|
Heart failure
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
Coarse crackles, S3
|
Anemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Hyponatremia, Hypokalemia, Hypomagnesemia
|
Elevated BNP
|
Pleural effusion, Cardiomegaly Kerley B lines
|
Normal
|
Radioisotope scan
|
Echocardiography
|
Generalized edema, Hepatomegaly
|
Valvular heart disease
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
+
|
Murmurs
|
Schistocyte
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Hyperthyroidism
|
Valve calcification
|
Normal
|
Valvular dysfunction in echocardiography
|
Echocardiography
|
Syncope, Palpitation
|
Myocardial infarction
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
S3 and S4
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Hyponatremia, Hypokalemia
|
Elevated troponin I and CKMB
|
Rolling out other causes
|
Coronary luminal narrowing in CT perfusion scan
|
Wall motion abnormality in echocardiography
|
Cardiac troponin I
|
Dizziness, Fatigue, Lightheadedness, Cold sweat
|
Cardiogenic shock
|
+/-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
+
|
Muffled heart sound
|
Anemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Hyperkalemia
|
↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Echocardiography
|
Clinical findings
|
Tachypnea, Palpitation, Hypotension, Weak pulse
|
Cardiomyopathy
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
S3 and S4
|
Lymphocytosis
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Enlarged left ventricle and atria, Pulmonary edema
|
Normal
|
MRI
|
Endomyocardial biopsy
|
Arrhythmia, Bloating
|
Heart tumors
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
Early diastolic tumor plop
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Mild ↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Calcification in lateral view
|
Intracardiac mass
|
Echocardiography
|
Histologic diagnosis (biopsy)
|
Syncope, Weight loss
|
Mitral Stenosis
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
Diastolic murmur
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Mild ↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Left atrial enlargement, Mitral annular calcification
|
Secondary pulmonary hemosiderosis
|
Velocity-encoded cine-magnetic resonance imaging (VEC-MRI)
|
Echocardiography
|
Dizziness, Hemoptysis
|
Vascular disease
|
Arterial disorders
|
Acrocyanosis
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
Normal
|
Anemia, Leukocytosis
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Hypercalcemia
|
↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
-
|
Clinical findings
|
Brittle nails, Telangiectasia
|
Arterial embolism
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Hyperkalemia
|
↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE)
|
Clinical findings
|
Headache, Decreased sensation
|
Raynaud's Phenomenon
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
Normal
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2
|
Normal
|
Mild ↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
-
|
Clinical findings
|
Sensitivity to cold, Decreased sensation
|
Venous disorders
|
Superior vena cava obstruction
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
-
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+
|
Normal
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2
|
Normal
|
↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Superior mediastinal widening, Right hilar prominence
|
Thrombosis, Mediastinal mass or lymphadenopathy, Associated lung mass
|
-
|
Chest CT scan
|
Headache,
Facial swelling
|
Venous stasis
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
+/-
|
+
|
Normal
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2
|
Hypercalcemia
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Color-flow duplex ultrasound
|
Color-flow duplex ultrasound
|
Leg swelling, Pain during walking,
Leg ulcers
|
Disease
|
Peripheral
|
Central
|
Dyspnea
|
Fever
|
Chest pain
|
Clubbing
|
Peripheral edema
|
Auscultation
|
CBC
|
ABG
|
Electrolytes
|
Other
|
X-ray
|
CT scan
|
Other
|
Gold standard
|
Additional findings
|
Hematologic diseases
|
Methemoglobinemia
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
Wheezing
|
Anemia, Methemoglobinemia
|
Normal PaO2, ↑SaO2, "Saturation gap"
|
Normal
|
↓SaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Echocardiography for ruling out other causes
|
Co-oximetry, ABG paired with pulse oximetry. Serum methemoglobin levels
|
Headache, Altered mental status, Delirium, Seizure, Coma
|
Polycythemia
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
Normal
|
↑RBC, ↑WBC, ↑HGB, ↑Plt
|
↓O2
|
Hyperkalemia
|
↑Leukocyte alkaline phosphatase, ↑Ferritin, ↑Erythropoietin
|
AVM, COPD, pulmonary hypertension
|
Normal
|
Abdominal ultrasound or renal vascular studies for ruling out renal artery stenosis
|
RBC mass (RCM) and plasma volume measurement
|
Itchiness, Headache. Dizziness. Blurred vision
|
Neurological disease
|
Breath-holding spells
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
Wheezing
|
Hypochromic microcytic anemia
|
↓O2
|
Hypocalcemia, Hypokalemia
|
Iron deficiency
|
Ruling out foreign body aspiration
|
Normal
|
EEG monitoring
|
Clinical findings
|
Fainting, Twitching muscles, Seizure
|
Seizure
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Hyponatremia, Hypo/Hypercalcemia
|
↑CPK, ↑LDH,
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
EEG
|
EEG
|
Fainting, Tonic-clonic movements
|
Coma
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
+/-
|
Wheezing
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
-
|
Underlying disease
|
Underlying disease
|
-
|
Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)
|
Depressed brainstem reflexes, Agonal breathing
|
Head trauma
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
-
|
Skull fracture
|
Intracranial hemorrhage
|
MRI
|
CT scan
|
Nausea, Hypertension, Bradycardia,Tachypnea
|
Miscellaneous
|
High altitude exposure
|
+/-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
+
|
-
|
Wheezing
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2, ↓CO2, Respiratory alkalosis
|
Hyperphosphatemia, Hypercalcemia, Hyponatremia, Hypokalemia, Hypomagnesemia
|
Decreased bicarbonate
|
Central interstitial edema
|
Pulmonary consolidation
|
-
|
Hypoxic challenge test
|
Dizziness, Coma, Death
|
Septic shock
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
Rales, crackles, Wheeze, Pleural friction rub
|
Leukocytosis with neutrophilia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2, Metabolic acidosis
|
Hyperkalemia
|
↑ESR, ↑CRP
|
Consolidation
|
Pulmonary infiltration
|
Echocardiography
|
Blood culture
|
Chills, Hypothermia, Loss of consciousness
|
Smoke inhalation
|
+/-
|
+
|
+
|
-
|
+
|
-
|
-
|
Wheezing
|
Anemia, Carboxyhemoglobin
|
↓O2, ↑CO2, Respiratory acidosis
|
Normal
|
CO-oximetry
|
Diffuse opacities
|
Pulmonary infiltration
|
Pulmonary function testing
|
Bronchoscopy
|
Cough, Hoarseness, Hemoptysis, Headache, Fainting
|
Cold exposure
|
+
|
-
|
+/-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Normal
|
Leukopenia, ↑RBC
|
↓O2, ↑CO2, Metabolic acidosis
|
Hypokalemia, Hypocalcemia
|
Hyperglycemia, ↑CK
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
-
|
Clinical findings
|
Confusion, Tachycardia/Bradycardia, Coma
|