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* ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia. | * ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia. | ||
* Aspiration pneumonia is most commonly caused by anaerobic organisms. | * [[Aspiration pneumonia]] is most commonly caused by [[anaerobic]] organisms. | ||
* Prior to the development of antibiotics and vaccination, it was a leading cause of death. | * Prior to the development of antibiotics and vaccination, it was a leading cause of death. | ||
* Traditionally, it was highly sensitive to [[penicillin]], but during the 1970s resistance to multiple antibiotics began to develop. | * Traditionally, it was highly sensitive to [[penicillin]], but during the 1970s resistance to multiple antibiotics began to develop. | ||
* Current strains of "drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae" or DRSP are common, accounting for twenty percent of all streptococcal infections. | * Current strains of "drug resistant ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]''" or DRSP are common, accounting for twenty percent of all streptococcal infections. | ||
* Adults with risk factors for DRSP including being older than 65, having exposure to children in [[day care]], [[alcoholism]], other severe underlying disease, or recent treatment with antibiotics should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against DRSP.{{ref|Ruhe}} | * Adults with risk factors for DRSP including being older than 65, having exposure to children in [[day care]], [[alcoholism]], other severe underlying disease, or recent treatment with antibiotics should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against DRSP.{{ref|Ruhe}} | ||
Revision as of 22:51, 19 February 2014
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Community-Acquired Pneumonia Microchapters |
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Differentiating Community-acquired pneumonia from other Diseases |
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Diagnosis |
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Treatment |
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Case Studies |
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Community-acquired pneumonia causes On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Community-acquired pneumonia causes |
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Directions to Hospitals Treating Community-acquired pneumonia |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for Community-acquired pneumonia causes |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Chetan Lokhande, M.B.B.S [2]
Overview
Community-acquired pneumonia can be caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal organisms. Causative etiology varies with age, immune status, epidemiologic background, and comorbidity.
General Considerations
Infants and Newborns
- GBS causes at least 50% of cases of CAP in the first week of life.[3]
- Other bacterial causes in the newborn period include Listeria monocytogenes and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
- Viral causes like herpes simplex virus (most common), adenovirus, mumps, and enterovirus.
Children
- For the most part, children older than one month are at risk for the same microorganisms as adults.
- Children less than five years are much less likely to have pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, or Legionella pneumophila.[1]
- In contrast, older children and teenagers are more likely to acquire Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydophila pneumoniae than adults.[4]
- A unique cause of CAP in this group is Chlamydia trachomatis, which is acquired during birth but does not cause pneumonia until 2-4 weeks later.
- Common viruses include respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), metapneumovirus, adenovirus, parainfluenza, influenza, and rhinovirus.
- RSV in particular is a common source of illness and hospitalization.[5]
- Fungi and parasites are not typically encountered in otherwise healthy infants, though maternally-derived syphilis can be a cause of CAP in this age group.
Adults
Viruses
- Viruses account for about 20% cases of CAP.
- Common viruses are influenza, parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial virus, metapneumovirus, and adenovirus.
- Less common viruses include chicken pox, SARS, avian flu, and hantavirus.[6]
Atypical Organisms
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, and Legionella pneumophila are often grouped as atypical pneumonia. Community acquired pneumonia caused by these agents present insidiously, with a non-productive cough and prominent extra-pulmonary complaints, such as myalgias and diarrhea (lack the typical pneumonia symptoms of fever, cough, and sputum).
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae is often referred to as "walking pneumonia." It is transmitted via respiratory droplets and is common among healthy individuals in close contact with one another, such as dormitories or military barracks.
- Atypical organisms are more difficult to grow, respond to different antibiotics, and were discovered more recently than the typical bacteria discovered in the early twentieth century.
Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia.
- Aspiration pneumonia is most commonly caused by anaerobic organisms.
- Prior to the development of antibiotics and vaccination, it was a leading cause of death.
- Traditionally, it was highly sensitive to penicillin, but during the 1970s resistance to multiple antibiotics began to develop.
- Current strains of "drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae" or DRSP are common, accounting for twenty percent of all streptococcal infections.
- Adults with risk factors for DRSP including being older than 65, having exposure to children in day care, alcoholism, other severe underlying disease, or recent treatment with antibiotics should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against DRSP.[7]
Haemophilus influenzae
- Haemophilus influenzae used to be a common bacterial cause of CAP.
- First discovered in 1892, it was initially believed to be the cause of influenza because it commonly causes CAP in people who have suffered recent lung damage from viral pneumonia.
Enteric Gram-Negative Bacteria
- Enteric bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae may cause commnity-acquired penumonia.
- Adults with risk factors for infection, which include living in a nursing home, serious heart and lung disease, and recent antibiotic use should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against Enteric Gram negative bacteria.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an uncommon cause of CAP, but it is a particularly difficult bacteria to treat.
- Individuals who are malnourished, have bronchiectasis, are on corticosteroids, or have recently had strong antibiotics for a week or more, should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.[8]
Special Situations
- Coccidioides spp. are common in southwestern area of the United States.
- Anaerobic infection is common in alcoholics. Pneumococcal pneumonia remains the most common cause of CAP in alcoholics too.
- Psittacosis (due to Chlamydophila psittaci) should be considered in the patient with exposure to birds or bird droppings.
- Anaerobes are common in patients with poor dental hygiene, and a suspected large volume of aspiration.
- Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Legionella species are the common causes of community acquired pneumonia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders and smokers.
- Streptococcus pneumoniae, Gram-negative bacilli, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, anaerobes, and Chlamydophila pneumoniae are more common in nursing home residents.
- Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis are common pathogens in early stages of HIV, whereas, Pneumocystis jiroveci, Histoplasma, and Cryptococcus are commonly seen in late stages HIV.
- In patients with structural lung disease such as bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cepacia, and Staphylococcus aureus are the common pathogens involved.
Aspiration Pneumonia
- Incompetent swallowing mechanism, such as in neurological disease (a common cause being strokes) or while a person is intoxicated.
- Iatrogenic causes such as general anaesthesia for an operation. Patients are therefore instructed to be nil per os (NPO) for at least four hours before surgery.
- Whether aspiration pneumonia represents a true bacterial infection or a chemical inflammatory process remains the subject of significant controversy.
Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus statement on common etiologies of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. (DO NOT EDIT)
| Location | Etiologies of Community-Acquired Pneumonia[2][3][4] |
| ▸ Outpatient | ▸ Streptococcus pneumoniae |
| ▸ Mycoplasma pneumoniae | |
| ▸ Haemophilus influenzae | |
| ▸ Chlamydophila pneumoniae | |
| ▸ Influenza A and B, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza | |
| ▸ Inpatient (non-ICU) | ▸ Streptococcus pneumoniae |
| ▸ Mycoplasma pneumoniae | |
| ▸ Chlamydophila pneumoniae | |
| ▸ Haemophilus influenzae | |
| ▸ Legionella | |
| ▸ Aspiration | |
| ▸ Influenza A and B, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza | |
| ▸ Yersinia enterocolitica | |
| ▸ Inpatient (ICU) | ▸ Streptococcus pneumoniae |
| ▸ Staphylococcus aureus | |
| ▸ Legionella | |
| ▸ Gram-negative bacilli | |
| ▸ Haemophilus influenzae | |
| ▸ Acinetobacter baumannii |
Causes
Common Causes
Neonates
- Bacteria
- Viruses
Children
- Bacteria
- Viruses
Adults
- Typical Bacteria
- Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Haemophilus influenzae
- Escherichia coli
- Klebsiella pneumoniae
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Atypical Bacteria
- Viruses
- Newborn infants, children, and adults are at risk for different spectrums of disease causing microorganisms.
- In addition, adults with chronic illnesses, who live in certain parts of the world, who reside in nursing homes, who have recently been treated with antibiotics, or who are alcoholics are at risk for unique infections.
Causes by Organ System
Causes in Alphabetical Order
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References
- ↑ Shachor-Meyouhas, Y.; Arad-Cohen, N.; Zaidman, I.; Gefen, A.; Kassis, I. (2012). "[Legionella pneumonia in a child with leukemia]". Harefuah. 151 (8): 479–82, 496. PMID 23350295. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, Dowell SF, File TM, Musher DM, Niederman MS, Torres A, Whitney CG (2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 44 Suppl 2: S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMID 17278083. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Wong, KK.; Fistek, M.; Watkins, RR. (2013). "Community-acquired pneumonia caused by Yersinia enterocolitica in an immunocompetent patient". J Med Microbiol. 62 (Pt 4): 650–1. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.053488-0. PMID 23242642. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Oh, YJ.; Song, SH.; Baik, SH.; Lee, HH.; Han, IM.; Oh, DH. (2013). "A case of fulminant community-acquired Acinetobacter baumannii pneumonia in Korea". Korean J Intern Med. 28 (4): 486–90. doi:10.3904/kjim.2013.28.4.486. PMID 23864808. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help)