Community-acquired pneumonia causes
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Chetan Lokhande, M.B.B.S [2]; Alejandro Lemor, M.D. [3]
Overview
Community-acquired pneumonia can be caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal organisms. Causative etiology varies with age, immune status, epidemiologic background, and comorbidity. The most common cause of CAP in adult outpatients and inpatients is Streptococcus pneumoniae. Patients admitted to the intensive care unit tend to have more aggressive organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative bacilli. Neonates are most susceptible to Group-B-Streptococcus (GBS) which causes approximately 50% of pneumonias in the first week of life. Children and elderly patients are more susceptible to viral infections as well atypical bacterial pneumonias (Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, Legionella).
Causes
Most Common Etiologies for Community-Acquired Pneumonia [1][2][3]
| Outpatient | Inpatient (non-ICU) | Inpatient (ICU) |
|---|---|---|
Common Causes by Age Group
| Age Group | Neonates | Children | Adults |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bacteria |
Typical Bacteria
Atypical Bacteria | ||
| Virus |
- Newborn infants, children, and adults are at risk for different spectrums of disease causing microorganisms.
- In addition, adults with chronic illnesses, who live in certain parts of the world, who reside in nursing homes, who have recently been treated with antibiotics, or who are alcoholics are at risk for unique infections.
Infants and Newborns
- GBS causes at least 50% of cases of CAP in the first week of life.[4]
- Other bacterial causes in the newborn period include Listeria monocytogenes and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
- Viral causes like herpes simplex virus (most common), adenovirus, mumps, and enterovirus.
Children
- For the most part, children older than one month are at risk for the same microorganisms as adults.
- Children less than five years are much less likely to have pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, or Legionella pneumophila.[4]
- In contrast, older children and teenagers are more likely to acquire Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydophila pneumoniae than adults.[5]
- A unique cause of CAP in this group is Chlamydia trachomatis, which is acquired during birth but does not cause pneumonia until 2-4 weeks later.
- Common viruses include respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), metapneumovirus, adenovirus, parainfluenza, influenza, and rhinovirus.
- RSV in particular is a common source of illness and hospitalization.[6]
- Fungi and parasites are not typically encountered in otherwise healthy infants, though maternally-derived syphilis can be a cause of CAP in this age group.
Adults
The causes of CAP in adults are outlined in the following categories.
Viruses
- Viruses account for about 20% cases of CAP.
- Common viruses are influenza, parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial virus, metapneumovirus, and adenovirus.
- Less common viruses include chicken pox, SARS, avian flu, and hantavirus.[7]
Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia.
- Aspiration pneumonia is most commonly caused by anaerobic organisms.
- Prior to the development of antibiotics and vaccination, it was a leading cause of death.
- Traditionally, it was highly sensitive to penicillin, but during the 1970s resistance to multiple antibiotics began to develop.
- Current strains of drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (DRSP) are common, accounting for twenty percent of all streptococcal infections.
- risk factors for DRSP in adults include: being older than 65, having exposure to children in day care, alcoholism, other severe underlying disease, or recent treatment with antibiotics; individuals exposed to these risk factors should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against DRSP.[8]
Atypical Organisms
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, and Legionella pneumophila are often grouped as atypical pneumonia. Community-acquired pneumonia caused by these agents present insidiously, with a non-productive cough and prominent extra-pulmonary complaints, such as myalgias and diarrhea (lack the typical pneumonia symptoms of fever, cough, and sputum).
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae is often referred to as "walking pneumonia." It is transmitted via respiratory droplets and is common among healthy individuals in close contact with one another in settings such as dormitories or military barracks.
- Atypical organisms are more difficult to grow and respond to different antibiotics; they were discovered more recently than the typical bacteria discovered in the early twentieth century.
Haemophilus influenzae
- Haemophilus influenzae used to be a common bacterial cause of CAP.
- First discovered in 1892, it was initially believed to be the cause of influenza because it commonly causes CAP in people who have suffered recent lung damage from viral pneumonia.
Enteric Gram-Negative Bacteria
- Enteric bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae may cause commnity-acquired penumonia.
- risk factors in adults for infection include: living in a nursing home, serious heart and lung disease, and recent antibiotic use; these individuals should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against enteric Gram-negative bacteria.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an uncommon cause of CAP, but it is a particularly difficult bacteria to treat.
- Individuals who are malnourished, have bronchiectasis, are on corticosteroids, or have recently had strong antibiotics for a week or more, should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.[9]
Special Situations
- Coccidioides spp. are common in southwestern area of the United States.
- Anaerobic infection is common in alcoholics. Pneumococcal pneumonia remains the most common cause of CAP in alcoholics.
- Psittacosis (caused by Chlamydophila psittaci) should be considered in the patient with exposure to birds or bird droppings.
- Anaerobes are common in patients with poor dental hygiene and a suspected large volume of aspiration.
- Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Legionella species are the common causes of community acquired pneumonia in those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders and smokers.
- Streptococcus pneumoniae, Gram-negative bacilli, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, anaerobes, and Chlamydophila pneumoniae are more common in nursing home residents.
- Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis are common pathogens in early stages of HIV, whereas, Pneumocystis jiroveci, Histoplasma, and Cryptococcus are commonly seen in late stages HIV.
- In patients with structural lung disease such as bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cepacia, and Staphylococcus aureus are the common pathogens involved.
Aspiration Pneumonia
- Incompetent swallowing mechanism, as can be found in neurological disease (a common cause being strokes) or while a person is intoxicated.
- Iatrogenic causes such as general anaesthesia for an operation. Patients are therefore instructed to be nil per os (NPO) for at least four hours before surgery.
- Whether aspiration pneumonia represents a true bacterial infection or a chemical inflammatory process remains the subject of significant controversy.
Causes by Organ System
Causes in Alphabetical Order
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References
- ↑ Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, Dowell SF, File TM, Musher DM, Niederman MS, Torres A, Whitney CG (2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 44 Suppl 2: S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMID 17278083. Retrieved 2012-09-06. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Wong, KK.; Fistek, M.; Watkins, RR. (2013). "Community-acquired pneumonia caused by Yersinia enterocolitica in an immunocompetent patient". J Med Microbiol. 62 (Pt 4): 650–1. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.053488-0. PMID 23242642. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Oh, YJ.; Song, SH.; Baik, SH.; Lee, HH.; Han, IM.; Oh, DH. (2013). "A case of fulminant community-acquired Acinetobacter baumannii pneumonia in Korea". Korean J Intern Med. 28 (4): 486–90. doi:10.3904/kjim.2013.28.4.486. PMID 23864808. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Shachor-Meyouhas, Y.; Arad-Cohen, N.; Zaidman, I.; Gefen, A.; Kassis, I. (2012). "[Legionella pneumonia in a child with leukemia]". Harefuah. 151 (8): 479–82, 496. PMID 23350295. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help)