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__NOTOC__ | __NOTOC__ | ||
{{Bronchitis}} | {{Bronchitis}} | ||
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{ | {{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{MehdiP}}; {{NRM}} | ||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Virus are thought to be the | Virus are thought to be the most common cause of acute bronchitis. [[Influenza]] A and B, [[parainfluenza]], [[respiratory syncytial virus]], [[coronavirus]] are the most commonly involved pathogens. Bacteria, such as [[mycoplasma]], [[chlamydiae]] and [[bordetella pertussis]], are also found to cause acute bronchitis. Smoking, occupational exposures, air pollutants, and genetic factors are etiologies of chronic bronchitis. | ||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
*<font size="3.3">'''[[Acute Bronchitis]]:'''</font> may be caused by either | *<font size="3.3">'''[[Acute bronchitis|Acute Bronchitis]]:'''</font> may be caused by either viruses, bacteria or environmental factors. | ||
::'''Viruses:''' Influenza | ::'''Viruses:''' [[Influenza]] virus, [[parainfluenza virus]], [[respiratory syncytial virus]], [[coronavirus]], [[adenovirus]], [[enterovirus]], [[rhinovirus]], [[coxsackievirus]], and human [[metapneumovirus]]<ref name="pmid9323784">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jonsson JS, Sigurdsson JA, Kristinsson KG, Guthnadóttir M, Magnusson S |title=Acute bronchitis in adults. How close do we come to its aetiology in general practice? |journal=Scand J Prim Health Care |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=156–60 |year=1997 |pmid=9323784 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12402203">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boivin G, Abed Y, Pelletier G, Ruel L, Moisan D, Côté S, Peret TC, Erdman DD, Anderson LJ |title=Virological features and clinical manifestations associated with human metapneumovirus: a new paramyxovirus responsible for acute respiratory-tract infections in all age groups |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=186 |issue=9 |pages=1330–4 |year=2002 |pmid=12402203 |doi=10.1086/344319 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16107980">{{cite journal |vauthors=Louie JK, Hacker JK, Gonzales R, Mark J, Maselli JH, Yagi S, Drew WL |title=Characterization of viral agents causing acute respiratory infection in a San Francisco University Medical Center Clinic during the influenza season |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=822–8 |year=2005 |pmid=16107980 |doi=10.1086/432800 |url=}}</ref> | ||
::''' | ::'''Bacteria:''' [[Mycoplasma pneumoniae|''Mycoplasma pneumoniae'']], [[Chlamydophila pneumoniae|''Chlamydophila pneumoniae'']], and ''[[Bordetella pertussis]]''<ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref> | ||
::'''Environmental | ::'''Environmental factors:''' Toxic fume inhalation, tobacco, dust, and aerosols<ref name="pmid11106722">{{cite journal |vauthors=Irwin RS, Madison JM |title=The diagnosis and treatment of cough |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=343 |issue=23 |pages=1715–21 |year=2000 |pmid=11106722 |doi=10.1056/NEJM200012073432308 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*<font size="3.3">'''[[Chronic Bronchitis]]:'''</font> caused by | *<font size="3.3">'''[[Chronic Bronchitis]]:'''</font> may be caused by smoking, air pollutants, occupational exposures, and genetic factors | ||
::'''Smoking''' | ::'''Smoking''' | ||
:::The primary risk factor for COPD is chronic tobacco smoking. In the [[United States]], 80 to 90% of cases of COPD are due to smoking.<ref name="medcauses">[http://www.medicinenet.com/chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_copd/page3.htm MedicineNet.com - COPD causes]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Young RP, Hopkins RJ, Christmas T, Black PN, Metcalf P, Gamble GD |title=COPD prevalence is increased in lung cancer, independent of age, sex and smoking history |journal=Eur. Respir. J. |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=380–6 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19196816 |doi=10.1183/09031936.00144208 }}</ref> Exposure to cigarette smoke is measured in | :::The primary risk factor for COPD is chronic tobacco smoking. In the [[United States]], 80 to 90% of cases of COPD are due to smoking.<ref name="medcauses">[http://www.medicinenet.com/chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_copd/page3.htm MedicineNet.com - COPD causes]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Young RP, Hopkins RJ, Christmas T, Black PN, Metcalf P, Gamble GD |title=COPD prevalence is increased in lung cancer, independent of age, sex and smoking history |journal=Eur. Respir. J. |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=380–6 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19196816 |doi=10.1183/09031936.00144208 }}</ref> Exposure to cigarette smoke is measured in pack-years, the average number of packages of cigarettes smoked daily multiplied by the number of years of smoking.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/Templates/db_alpha.aspx?CdrID=306510 |title=Definition of pack year - NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> The likelihood of developing COPD increases with age and cumulative smoke exposure. Almost all life-long smokers will develop COPD.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68516-4}}</ref> | ||
::'''Occupational Exposures''' | ::'''Occupational Exposures''' | ||
:::Intense and prolonged exposure to workplace dusts found in | :::Intense and prolonged exposure to workplace dusts found in coal mining, gold mining, and the cotton textile industry, and chemicals such as [[cadmium]], [[isocyanates]], and fumes from welding, have been implicated in the development of airflow obstruction, even in nonsmokers.<ref>{{cite journal | ||
| pmid = 16690673 | | pmid = 16690673 | ||
| pmc = 1459603 | | pmc = 1459603 | ||
| Line 28: | Line 28: | ||
| month = May | | month = May | ||
| author = Devereux, Graham | | author = Devereux, Graham | ||
}}</ref> Workers who smoke and are exposed to these particles and gases are even more likely to develop COPD. Intense [[silica]] dust exposure causes [[silicosis]], a restrictive lung disease distinct from COPD; however, less intense silica dust exposures have been linked to a COPD-like condition.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hnizdo E, Vallyathan V |title=Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease due to occupational exposure to silica dust: a review of epidemiological and pathological evidence |journal=Occup Environ Med |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=237–43 |year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12660371 |pmc=1740506 |doi=10.1136/oem.60.4.237}}</ref> The effect of occupational pollutants on the lungs appears to be substantially less important than the effect of cigarette smoking.<ref name="Harrisons">{{cite book |author=Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. |title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine |edition=17th |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional |year=2008 |isbn=0-07-146633-9}}</ref> | }}</ref> Workers who smoke and are exposed to these particles and gases are even more likely to develop [[COPD]]. Intense [[silica]] dust exposure causes [[silicosis]], a restrictive lung disease distinct from COPD; however, less intense silica dust exposures have been linked to a COPD-like condition.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hnizdo E, Vallyathan V |title=Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease due to occupational exposure to silica dust: a review of epidemiological and pathological evidence |journal=Occup Environ Med |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=237–43 |year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12660371 |pmc=1740506 |doi=10.1136/oem.60.4.237}}</ref> The effect of occupational pollutants on the lungs appears to be substantially less important than the effect of cigarette smoking.<ref name="Harrisons">{{cite book |author=Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. |title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine |edition=17th |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional |year=2008 |isbn=0-07-146633-9}}</ref> | ||
::'''Air Pollution''' | ::'''Air Pollution''' | ||
:::Studies in many countries | :::Studies in many countries reveal that people who live in large cities have a higher rate of COPD compared to people who live in rural areas.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Halbert RJ, Natoli JL, Gano A, Badamgarav E, Buist AS, Mannino DM |title=Global burden of COPD: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Eur. Respir. J. |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=523–32 |year=2006 |month=September |pmid=16611654 |doi=10.1183/09031936.06.00124605 }}</ref> Urban [[air pollution]] may be a contributing factor for COPD, as it is thought to slow the normal growth of the lungs, although the long-term research needed to confirm the link has not been performed. Studies of the industrial waste gas and COPD/asthma-aggravating compound, [[sulfur dioxide]], and the inverse relation to the presence of the blue lichen ''Xanthoria'' (usually found abundantly in the countryside, but never in towns or cities) suggest that combustive industrial processes do not aid COPD sufferers. In many [[developing countries]], indoor air pollution from cooking fire smoke (often using [[biomass fuel]]s such as wood and animal dung) is a common cause of COPD, especially in women.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kennedy SM, Chambers R, Du W, Dimich-Ward H |title=Environmental and occupational exposures: do they affect chronic obstructive pulmonary disease differently in women and men?|journal=Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society|volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=692–4 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18073405 |url=http://pats.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/4/8/692 |doi=10.1513/pats.200707-094SD}}</ref> | ||
::'''Genetics''' | ::'''Genetics''' | ||
:::Some factor in addition to heavy smoke exposure is required for a person to develop COPD. This factor is probably a [[gene]]tic susceptibility. COPD is more common among relatives of COPD patients who smoke than unrelated smokers.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Silverman EK, Chapman HA, Drazen JM, ''et al.'' |title=Genetic epidemiology of severe, early-onset chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Risk to relatives for airflow obstruction and chronic bronchitis |journal=Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. |volume=157 |issue=6 Pt 1 |pages=1770–8 |year=1998 |month=June |pmid=9620904 |url=http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9620904}}</ref> The genetic differences that make some peoples' lungs susceptible to the effects of tobacco smoke are mostly unknown.[[Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency]] is a genetic condition that is responsible for | :::Some factor in addition to heavy smoke exposure is required for a person to develop COPD. This factor is probably a [[gene]]tic susceptibility. COPD is more common among relatives of COPD patients who smoke than unrelated smokers.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Silverman EK, Chapman HA, Drazen JM, ''et al.'' |title=Genetic epidemiology of severe, early-onset chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Risk to relatives for airflow obstruction and chronic bronchitis |journal=Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. |volume=157 |issue=6 Pt 1 |pages=1770–8 |year=1998 |month=June |pmid=9620904 |url=http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9620904}}</ref> The genetic differences that make some peoples' lungs susceptible to the effects of tobacco smoke are mostly unknown. [[Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency]] is a genetic condition that is responsible for approximately 2% of cases of COPD. In this condition, the body does not make enough of the protein [[alpha 1-antitrypsin]]. Alpha 1-antitrypsin protects the lungs from damage caused by [[protease]] [[enzymes]], such as [[elastase]] and [[trypsin]], that can be released as a result of an inflammatory response to tobacco smoke.<ref>{{MedlinePlus|000091}}</ref> | ||
===Common Causes=== | ===Common Causes=== | ||
*[[Adenovirus]] | *[[Adenovirus]] | ||
| Line 161: | Line 161: | ||
===Causes in Alphabetical Order=== | ===Causes in Alphabetical Order=== | ||
{{columns-list | {{columns-list| | ||
*[[Acenaphthene]] | *[[Acenaphthene]] | ||
*[[Acetaldehyde]] | *[[Acetaldehyde]] | ||
| Line 321: | Line 321: | ||
===Causes Based on Classification=== | ===Causes Based on Classification=== | ||
====Acute Bronchitis==== | ====Acute Bronchitis==== | ||
* The cause of acute bronchitis | * The cause of acute bronchitis depends on several factors including season of the year (winter and fall), vaccination level, age and immune status of the patient. | ||
* Viruses are considered to be the | * Viruses are considered to be the most common cause of acute bronchitis. Common viruses include [[influenza]] A and B, [[parainfluenza]], [[respiratory syncytial virus]], [[coronavirus]], [[adenovirus]] and [[rhinovirus]]. | ||
* [[Human metapneumovirus]] is also found to cause bronchitis. | * [[Human metapneumovirus]] is also found to cause bronchitis. | ||
* Some atypical | * Some atypical bacteria are also found to act as causative factors for bronchitis namely [[bordetella pertussis]], [[Chlamydia pneumonia]] and [[mycoplasma pneumonia]]. | ||
The following | The following factors exacerbate [[bronchitis]]: | ||
*[[Air pollution]] | *[[Air pollution]] | ||
*[[Allergens]] | *[[Allergens]] | ||
| Line 331: | Line 331: | ||
====Chronic Bronchitis==== | ====Chronic Bronchitis==== | ||
[[Chronic bronchitis]] is a long-term [[condition]]. People have a [[cough]] that produces excessive [[mucus]]. To be diagnosed with [[chronic bronchitis]], | [[Chronic bronchitis]] is a long-term [[condition]]. People have a [[cough]] that produces excessive [[mucus]]. To be diagnosed with [[chronic bronchitis]], a patient must have a [[cough]] with [[mucus]] most days of the month for at least 3 months. | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
{{WikiDoc Help Menu}} | |||
{{WikiDoc Sources}} | |||
[[Category:Inflammations]] | [[Category:Inflammations]] | ||
[[Category:Pulmonology]] | [[Category:Pulmonology]] | ||
[[Category:General practice]] | [[Category:General practice]] | ||
[[Category:Crowdiagnosis]] | [[Category:Crowdiagnosis]] | ||
Latest revision as of 20:44, 29 July 2020
|
Bronchitis Main page |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Seyedmahdi Pahlavani, M.D. [2]; Nate Michalak, B.A.
Overview
Virus are thought to be the most common cause of acute bronchitis. Influenza A and B, parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial virus, coronavirus are the most commonly involved pathogens. Bacteria, such as mycoplasma, chlamydiae and bordetella pertussis, are also found to cause acute bronchitis. Smoking, occupational exposures, air pollutants, and genetic factors are etiologies of chronic bronchitis.
Causes
- Acute Bronchitis: may be caused by either viruses, bacteria or environmental factors.
- Viruses: Influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, coronavirus, adenovirus, enterovirus, rhinovirus, coxsackievirus, and human metapneumovirus[1][2][3]
- Bacteria: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, and Bordetella pertussis[4]
- Environmental factors: Toxic fume inhalation, tobacco, dust, and aerosols[5]
- Chronic Bronchitis: may be caused by smoking, air pollutants, occupational exposures, and genetic factors
- Smoking
- The primary risk factor for COPD is chronic tobacco smoking. In the United States, 80 to 90% of cases of COPD are due to smoking.[6][7] Exposure to cigarette smoke is measured in pack-years, the average number of packages of cigarettes smoked daily multiplied by the number of years of smoking.[8] The likelihood of developing COPD increases with age and cumulative smoke exposure. Almost all life-long smokers will develop COPD.[9]
- Smoking
- Occupational Exposures
- Intense and prolonged exposure to workplace dusts found in coal mining, gold mining, and the cotton textile industry, and chemicals such as cadmium, isocyanates, and fumes from welding, have been implicated in the development of airflow obstruction, even in nonsmokers.[10] Workers who smoke and are exposed to these particles and gases are even more likely to develop COPD. Intense silica dust exposure causes silicosis, a restrictive lung disease distinct from COPD; however, less intense silica dust exposures have been linked to a COPD-like condition.[11] The effect of occupational pollutants on the lungs appears to be substantially less important than the effect of cigarette smoking.[12]
- Occupational Exposures
- Air Pollution
- Studies in many countries reveal that people who live in large cities have a higher rate of COPD compared to people who live in rural areas.[13] Urban air pollution may be a contributing factor for COPD, as it is thought to slow the normal growth of the lungs, although the long-term research needed to confirm the link has not been performed. Studies of the industrial waste gas and COPD/asthma-aggravating compound, sulfur dioxide, and the inverse relation to the presence of the blue lichen Xanthoria (usually found abundantly in the countryside, but never in towns or cities) suggest that combustive industrial processes do not aid COPD sufferers. In many developing countries, indoor air pollution from cooking fire smoke (often using biomass fuels such as wood and animal dung) is a common cause of COPD, especially in women.[14]
- Air Pollution
- Genetics
- Some factor in addition to heavy smoke exposure is required for a person to develop COPD. This factor is probably a genetic susceptibility. COPD is more common among relatives of COPD patients who smoke than unrelated smokers.[15] The genetic differences that make some peoples' lungs susceptible to the effects of tobacco smoke are mostly unknown. Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency is a genetic condition that is responsible for approximately 2% of cases of COPD. In this condition, the body does not make enough of the protein alpha 1-antitrypsin. Alpha 1-antitrypsin protects the lungs from damage caused by protease enzymes, such as elastase and trypsin, that can be released as a result of an inflammatory response to tobacco smoke.[16]
- Genetics
Common Causes
- Adenovirus
- Air pollution
- Bordetella pertussis
- Coal dust
- Coronavirus
- Influenza
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- Parainfluenza
- Respiratory syncytial virus
- Rhinovirus
- Tobacco smoking
Causes by Organ System
Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Acenaphthene
- Acetaldehyde
- Acetic acid
- Acetic anhydride
- Acute viral nasopharyngitis (common cold)
- Adenovirus
- Air pollution
- Albuterol
- Alferon N
- Alfuzosin
- Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency
- Aluminium lung
- Anthracosis
- Artemether and lumefantrin
- Aspergillosis
- Asthma
- Ataxia telangiectasia
- Belimumab
- Benazepril
- Biphenyl
- Blue and bloated syndrome
- Bordetella pertussis
- Bronchiectasis
- Bronchiolitis
- Budesonide
- Butorphanol
- Candesartan
- Captafol
- Cardura
- Cevimeline
- Chickenpox
- Chlamydia pneumonia
- Chlorine dioxide
- Ciclesonide
- Citalopram
- Clopidogrel
- Coal dust
- Coal worker's pneumoconiosis
- Common cold
- COPD
- Coronavirus
- Coxsackievirus
- Crofelemer
- Cystic fibrosis
- Doxazosin
- Echovirus
- Enalapril maleate
- Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection
- Enterovirus
- Escitalopram
- Ethyleneamine
- Exemestane
- Farmer's lung
- Febuxostat
- Felodipine
- Felty's syndrome
- Fingolimod
- Flu
- Fluoxetine
- Fluvoxamine
- Gastroesophageal reflux disease
- Goserelin
- Group A streptococcal infection
- Gulf War syndrome
- Heart disease
- Hexamethylene diisocyanate
- HIV
- Hypoglycemia
- Ibandronate
- IgG deficiency
- Immunoglobulin G subclass deficiency
- Inflammatory bowel disease
- Infliximab
- Influenza
- Interferon
- Ipratropium
- Irbesartan
- Isosorbide dinitrate
- Isosorbide mononitrate
- Itraconazole
- Klinefelter syndrome
- Lamotrigine
- Latanoprost
- Leflunomide
- Lumigan
- Lung cancer
- Lung transplantation
- Marijuana abuse
- Measles
- Mesothelioma
- Methotrexate
- Metipranolol
- Metronidazole topical
- MHC class I deficiency
- Minoxidil
- Moexipril
- Moraxella catarrhalis
- Mycophenolate
- Mycophenolic acid
- Mycoplasma pneumonia
- Nateglinide
- Nicotine addiction
- Nitisinone
- Nitric acid
- Orthomyxovirus
- Oseltamivir
- Oxcarbazepine
- Paragonimiasis
- Parainfluenza
- Paramyxovirus
- Paroxetine
- Pentamidine isethionate
- Pharyngitis
- Phosphine
- Pirbuterol
- Pneumococcus
- Pneumoconiosis
- Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
- Pramipexole
- Primary immunodeficiency
- Prune belly syndrome
- Repaglinide
- Respiratory syncytial virus
- Rhinovirus
- Risedronate
- Ropinirole
- Rosuvastatin
- Selenium poisoning
- Sertraline
- Sibutramine
- Silicosis
- Silver
- Simvastatin
- Sinusitis
- Sjogren's syndrome
- Smoking
- Sulfuric acid
- Tacrolimus
- Tamsulosin
- Tarka (medication)
- Telmisartan
- Thalidomide
- Tiagabine
- Tobacco smoking
- Tobramycin
- Tolterodine
- Toluene diisocyanate
- Topiramate
- Trandolapril
- Travoprost
- Trichinellosis
- Unoprostone
- Vanadium poisoning
- Yellow nail syndrome
- Zanamivir
Causes Based on Classification
Acute Bronchitis
- The cause of acute bronchitis depends on several factors including season of the year (winter and fall), vaccination level, age and immune status of the patient.
- Viruses are considered to be the most common cause of acute bronchitis. Common viruses include influenza A and B, parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial virus, coronavirus, adenovirus and rhinovirus.
- Human metapneumovirus is also found to cause bronchitis.
- Some atypical bacteria are also found to act as causative factors for bronchitis namely bordetella pertussis, Chlamydia pneumonia and mycoplasma pneumonia.
The following factors exacerbate bronchitis:
- Air pollution
- Allergens
- Certain occupations (such as coal mining, textile manufacturing, or grain handling)
Chronic Bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis is a long-term condition. People have a cough that produces excessive mucus. To be diagnosed with chronic bronchitis, a patient must have a cough with mucus most days of the month for at least 3 months.
References
- ↑ Jonsson JS, Sigurdsson JA, Kristinsson KG, Guthnadóttir M, Magnusson S (1997). "Acute bronchitis in adults. How close do we come to its aetiology in general practice?". Scand J Prim Health Care. 15 (3): 156–60. PMID 9323784.
- ↑ Boivin G, Abed Y, Pelletier G, Ruel L, Moisan D, Côté S, Peret TC, Erdman DD, Anderson LJ (2002). "Virological features and clinical manifestations associated with human metapneumovirus: a new paramyxovirus responsible for acute respiratory-tract infections in all age groups". J. Infect. Dis. 186 (9): 1330–4. doi:10.1086/344319. PMID 12402203.
- ↑ Louie JK, Hacker JK, Gonzales R, Mark J, Maselli JH, Yagi S, Drew WL (2005). "Characterization of viral agents causing acute respiratory infection in a San Francisco University Medical Center Clinic during the influenza season". Clin. Infect. Dis. 41 (6): 822–8. doi:10.1086/432800. PMID 16107980.
- ↑ Wenzel RP, Fowler AA (2006). "Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis". N. Engl. J. Med. 355 (20): 2125–30. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp061493. PMID 17108344.
- ↑ Irwin RS, Madison JM (2000). "The diagnosis and treatment of cough". N. Engl. J. Med. 343 (23): 1715–21. doi:10.1056/NEJM200012073432308. PMID 11106722.
- ↑ MedicineNet.com - COPD causes
- ↑ Young RP, Hopkins RJ, Christmas T, Black PN, Metcalf P, Gamble GD (2009). "COPD prevalence is increased in lung cancer, independent of age, sex and smoking history". Eur. Respir. J. 34 (2): 380–6. doi:10.1183/09031936.00144208. PMID 19196816. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ "Definition of pack year - NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms".
- ↑ Template:Cite doi
- ↑ Devereux, Graham (2006). "Definition, epidemiology, and risk factors". BMJ. 332 (7550): 1142–4. doi:10.1136/bmj.332.7550.1142. PMC 1459603. PMID 16690673. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Hnizdo E, Vallyathan V (2003). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease due to occupational exposure to silica dust: a review of epidemiological and pathological evidence". Occup Environ Med. 60 (4): 237–43. doi:10.1136/oem.60.4.237. PMC 1740506. PMID 12660371. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. (2008). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (17th ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-146633-9.
- ↑ Halbert RJ, Natoli JL, Gano A, Badamgarav E, Buist AS, Mannino DM (2006). "Global burden of COPD: systematic review and meta-analysis". Eur. Respir. J. 28 (3): 523–32. doi:10.1183/09031936.06.00124605. PMID 16611654. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Kennedy SM, Chambers R, Du W, Dimich-Ward H (2007). "Environmental and occupational exposures: do they affect chronic obstructive pulmonary disease differently in women and men?". Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 4 (8): 692–4. doi:10.1513/pats.200707-094SD. PMID 18073405. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Silverman EK, Chapman HA, Drazen JM; et al. (1998). "Genetic epidemiology of severe, early-onset chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Risk to relatives for airflow obstruction and chronic bronchitis". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157 (6 Pt 1): 1770–8. PMID 9620904. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia 000091