Juvenile idiopathic arthritis differential diagnosis

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Dheeraj Makkar, M.D.[2] Nehal Eid, M.D.[3]

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Overview

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis is a diagnosis of exclusion. A broad range of infectious, malignant, autoimmune, autoinflammatory, and noninflammatory conditions can mimic its presentation. Careful clinical evaluation, laboratory testing, and imaging are essential to exclude alternative diagnoses, particularly infection and malignancy, before confirming juvenile idiopathic arthritis.

Differential Diagnosis

The diagnosis of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is a diagnosis of exclusion.

There is no definitive diagnostic test.

Several inflammatory, infectious, malignant, other autoinflammatory and noninflammatory conditions should be excluded before establishing the diagnosis.

Clinical presentation may mimic Familial Mediterranean fever.

Explicit warning in systemic JIA: rule out infection and cancer before treatment if arthritis absent.

Infectious Causes

Septic arthritis
Osteomyelitis
Lyme disease
Viral arthritis (e.g., parvovirus B19, Epstein–Barr virus)
Tuberculosis

Malignancy

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Lymphoma
Primary bone tumors

Malignancy should be suspected in children with bone pain disproportionate to examination findings, systemic symptoms, cytopenias, or poor response to anti-inflammatory therapy.

Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases

Systemic lupus erythematosus
Vasculitides (e.g., Kawasaki disease, polyarteritis nodosa)
Dermatomyositis
Inflammatory bowel disease–associated arthritis
Sarcoidosis

Autoinflammatory Syndromes

Periodic fever syndromes
Cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes
Familial Mediterranean fever

These conditions are particularly relevant in the differential diagnosis of systemic JIA due to overlapping fever and inflammatory features.

Noninflammatory and Mechanical Conditions

Joint hypermobility syndromes
Trauma or overuse injuries
Reactive arthralgia
Growing pains

A thorough history, physical examination, laboratory evaluation, and appropriate imaging are essential to exclude alternative diagnoses before confirming JIA. ^[1]

Differential Diagnosis of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

Category	Conditions	Distinguishing Features
Infectious	Septic arthritis (including kingella in young children) Osteomyelitis Lyme disease Viral arthritis (e.g., parvovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, hepatitis B virus, rubella virus, chikungunya virus) Tuberculosis	Acute onset; fever with marked pain; elevated inflammatory markers; positive cultures or serology; poor response to anti-inflammatory therapy
Postinfectious disorder	Acute rheumatic fever Poststreptococcal reactive arthritis Other reactive arthritis (transient synovitis, postdysenteric reactive arthritis)	ARF presents as migratory polyarthritis affecting large joints (knees, ankles, elbows, wrists) that responds dramatically to salicylates or NSAIDs within days. Carditis is the hallmark feature. PSRA presents as nonmigratory, persistent arthritis that does not respond to aspirin, distinguishing it from ARF. Transient synovitis is a self-limiting inflammatory condition predominantly affecting children, often triggered by viral infection. Postdysenteric reactive arthritis follows gastrointestinal infections and typically presents as asymmetric mono- or oligoarthritis of lower extremities with enthesitis as a hallmark feature.
Malignancy	Acute lymphoblastic leukemia Lymphoma Primary bone tumors	Bone pain out of proportion to exam; night pain; systemic symptoms; cytopenias; poor response to NSAIDs
Autoimmune / Inflammatory	Systemic lupus erythematosus Mixed connective-tissue disease Sjögren’s syndrome Juvenile dermatomyositis Vasculitis (including Kawasaki’s disease and IgA vasculitis) Sarcoidosis Arthritis related to inflammatory bowel disease Celiac disease	Multisystem involvement; characteristic laboratory findings (autoantibodies, complement abnormalities); variable arthritis pattern
Autoinflammatory Syndromes	Periodic fever syndromes Cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes Familial Mediterranean fever Nonbacterial osteomyelitis (chronic, recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis)	Recurrent fevers; inflammatory episodes without autoantibodies; strong genetic or familial patterns
Noninflammatory / Mechanical	Joint hypermobility syndromes Trauma or overuse injuries Reactive arthralgia Growing pains	Normal inflammatory markers; absence of persistent synovitis; symptoms related to activity or growth
Bone disease	Avascular necrosis Osteochondritis dissecans Skeletal dysplasias Vitamin C and other vitamin deficiencies	The distinguishing features of these bone diseases compared to juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) center on the absence of inflammatory markers and joint inflammation in the bone disorders, along with characteristic imaging and clinical patterns specific to each condition.
Primary immunodeficiency	Inborn errors of immunity	IEI should be suspected when arthritis presents very early in life, particularly with a positive family history.
Pain amplification	Juvenile fibromyalgia Complex regional pain syndrome type 1	Juvenile Fibromyalgia: Widespread musculoskeletal pain , not confined to a single limb Absence of objective physical findings such as swelling, color changes, or temperature asymmetry Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) type 1 is distinguished by: Regional distribution Objective autonomic signs, Typical post-traumatic onset

↑ Sandborg CI, Schulert GS, Kimura Y. Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2025;392:XXX–XXX. doi:10.1056/NEJMra2402073.

Abbreviations: ABG= Arterial blood gas, ANA= Antinuclear antibody, ANP= Atrial natriuretic peptide, ASO= Antistreptolysin O antibody, BNP= Brain natriuretic peptide, CBC= Complete blood count, COPD= Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, CRP= C-reactive protein, CT= Computed tomography, CXR= Chest X-ray, DVT= Deep vein thrombosis, ESR= Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, HRCT= High Resolution CT, IgE= Immunoglobulin E, LDH= Lactate dehydrogenase, PCWP= Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, PCR= Polymerase chain reaction, PFT= Pulmonary function test.

		Symptoms					Physical examination			Lab Findings				Imaging				Histopathology
Diseases		Clinical manifestations								Para-clinical findings									Gold standard	Additional findings
		Symptoms					Physical examination			Para-clinical findings
		Headache	Fever	Weight loss	Arthralgia	Claudication	Bruit	HTN	Focal neurological disorder	Biomarker	CBC	ESR	Other	CT scan	Angiography	Ultrasound/ Echocardiography	Other	Histopathology
Kawasaki disease^[1]		-	+	+/-	+	+	-	+/-	-	NT-proBNP, Meprin A, Filamin C	Normochromic anemia, ↑WBC with a left shift, Thrombocytosis	↑	Acute-phase reactants, ↓Cholesterol, ↓HDL, ↓ApolipoA	Coronary artery calcifications	Coronary artery aneurysms, stenosis or occlusion	Coronary artery anomaly in echocardiography	Electron beam CT (EBCT)	Acute destruction of the media by neutrophils, with loss of elastic fibers	History and physical examination	Diarrhea, Vomiting
Polyarteritis nodosa^[2]		+	+	+	+	+	+	+/-	+/-	LAMP-2 protein autoantibodies	Leukocytosis, Normochromic anemia, Thrombocytosis	↑	↑ Cr or BUN, ↑ ALT or AST, Proteinuria	Focal regions of infarction or hemorrhage	Multiple microaneurysms, Hemorrhage due to focal rupture, Occlusion	Aneurysms and renal arteriovenous fistula in color Doppler sonography	-	Necrotizing inflammatory lesions	Angiography	Sudden weight loss, Abdominal pain
Hepatitis B virus-associated polyarteritis nodosa^[3]		+/-	+/-	+	+	+/-	+/-	+	-	HBsAg	Leukocytosis, Normochromic anemia, Thrombocytosis	↑	↑ ALT or AST	Focal regions of infarction or hemorrhage	Microaneurysms in mesenteric artery	Aneurysms and renal arteriovenous fistula in color Doppler sonography	-	Necrotizing inflammatory lesions	Angiography	Peripheral neuropathy, Livedo reticularis
Infectious disease	Parvovirus B19 infection^[4]	+	+	+	+	-	-	-	+/-	B19 DNA, ↓Reticulocyte count	Anemia	↑	anti–parvovirus B19 IgM	-	-	Hydrops in fetal ultrasonography	-	-	B19 DNA	Purpuric rash, Erythema multiforme
	Scarlet fever^[5]	+	+	+/-	+	-	-	-	-	Antistreptolysin-O (ASO) titers	Leukocytosis	↑	↑CRP	Thickened pulmonary markings if pneumonia	-	-	-	Sparse neutrophilic perivascular infiltrate	History and physical examination	Sand-paper rashes, Sore throat
	Toxic shock syndrome^[6]	+	+	+	+	-	-	-	+/-	Procalcitonin	Leukocytosis with left shift	↑	Myoglobinuria, Sterile pyuria	Acute respiratory distress syndrome	-	-	-	Necrolysis of keratinocytes in epidermis, Perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate	Clinical criteria	Peeling or rashes, Organ dysfunction
	Mononucleosis^[7]	+	+	+	+	-	-	-	-	EBV DNA	Atypical lymphocyte	↑	Heterophile antibodies	CNS involvement	-	Splenomegaly	Encephalitis in MRI	Lymphoproliferative response in oropharynx, Lymphocytic infiltration in spleen	Heterophile antibody test	Splenomegaly, Palatal petechiae
	Leptospirosis^[8]	+	+	+	+	+/-	-	-	-	IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10	Anemia	-	↑Cr or BUN, ↑ALT or AST, Proteinuria	Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage	-	-	-	Toxin-mediated break down of endothelial cell membranes of capillaries	Culture and the microscopic agglutination test	Red eyes, Skin rash
	Lyme Disease^[9]	+/-	+	+/-	+	+/-	-	-	-	CXCL9 (MIG), CXCL10 (IP-10) and CCL19 (MIP3B)	Leukopenia, Thrombocytopenia	-	Microscopic hematuria, Proteinuria, ↑ALT or AST	Punctate lesions in periventricular white matter in brain SPECT	-	-	-	Acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans	Serologic tests	Erythema migrans
	Measles^[10]	+/-	+	+/-	+	-	-	-	-	Measles IgM	Leukopenia, Lymphocytosis, Thrombocytopenia	-	↑ALT or AST	Pneumonia	-	-	CXR	Spongiosis and vesiculation in the epidermis with scattered dyskeratotic keratinocytes	PCR	Generalized rash, Cough, Coryza, or Conjunctivitis
	Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever^[11]	+	+	+	+	-	-	-	-	R rickettsii serology	Thrombocytopenia, Anemia	-	↑ALT or AST, Hyponatremia	Infarction, edema, and meningeal enhancement	-	Myocardial or conduction abnormalities in echocardiography	-	Immunofluorescent or immunoperoxidase staining of R rickettsii	Clinical criteria and tick exposure	Rash on the palms and soles
	Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome^[12]	+	+	+	+	-	-	+/-	+/-	Anti exfoliatin and anti alpha-toxin antibodies	Leukocytosis with left shift	↑	Blood culture	Pneumonia	-	-	-	Intraepidermal blister, dense superficial perivascular lymphohistiocytic infiltrate	Blood culture and clinical findings	Widespread skin erythema, fluid-filled blisters
	Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis^[13]	-	+	+	-	-	-	-	+/-	MicroRNA-124	Normochromic normocytic anemia, Eosinophilia	↑	Fluid loss and electrolyte abnormalities	Tracheobronchial inflammation	-	-	-	Necrotic keratinocytes with full-thickness epithelial necrosis	Histopathology and clinical findings	Erythematous macular rash with purpuric centers
Systemic disease	Antiphospholipid Syndrome^[14]	+	+	-	-	-	-	-	+/-	Antiphospholipid antibodies	Thrombocytopenia, Hemolytic anemia	-	Lupus anticoagulant (LA)	Stroke, Pulmonary embolism, Budd-Chiari syndrome	Thrombus in major vessels	Valve thickening, vegetations, or insufficiency in echocardiography	-	Noninflammatory bland thrombosis without perivascular inflammation	Hx of thrombosis and antiphospholipid antibodies	Miscarriage, Pulmonary hypertension
Systemic disease	Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis^[15]	-	-	-	+	+/-	-	-	-	Rheumatoid factor (RF), S100A12	Lymphocytosis, Thrombocytopenia	↑	Myeloid-related proteins 8/14 (MRP8/14)	Synovial hypertrophy, Joint effusions	Cerebral vasculitis	Inflamed synovium	Bone scanning	Vascular congestion, RBC extravasation, Venular lumen occlusion	Conventional radiography	Evanescent rash, Dactylitis

Table below provides a differential diagnosis of disorders affecting the joints:^[16]

Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis (JRA)
Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis (CRMO)
Rickets


Disease name	Age of onset	Signs/Symptoms	X-ray findings	MRI findings
NOMID/CINCA^[16]^[17]	Early infancy	Parietal and frontal bossing Joint pain Knee valgus or varus Limb length differences Saddleback nose Contractures Urticaria-like rash Fever Chronic aseptic meningitis	Physis is the epicenter Early radiograph: enlargement of the unossified physis, resulting in a mass-like lesion Late radiograph: stippled ossification/calcification causing deformed adjacent epiphysis Possible involvement of multiple joints simultaneously or at different times	Enlarged, heterogenous physis with hypointense calcifications on T1 & T2 weighted images Heterogenous enhancement at the physis in post-gadolinium images Presence of popliteal lymph node Absence of bony erosion
Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis (JRA)^[18]^[19]	Younger than 16 years old	Fever Arthritis Rash Lymphadenopathy Hepatosplenomegaly	Involvement of the articular surface of the joints Initially, soft tissue swelling and enlarged epiphyseal enlargement due to hyperemia As the disease progresses, joint space narrowing and bony erosion are the dominant features	First, joint effusion, cartilage thinning and loss Later, joint erosion and evidence of secondary osteoarthritis Potential complications such as avascular necrosis
Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis (CRMO)^[20]^[21]^[22]	Childhood and adolescence	Episodes of pain and joint swelling Fever may be present or not may occur as part of a syndrome or alone	Multiple symmetrical metaphyseal lesions Lesions ranges between purely osteolytic, osteolytic with a sclerotic rim, mixed lytic and sclerotic, and purely sclerotic	Early phases: marrow edema with hypointense appearance on T1-weighted images Hyperintense on T2-weighted images Synovial thickening Joint effusion Destruction of joint cartilage Subchondral bone
Rickets^[23]^[24]	Childhood (depends on the severity of deficiency)	Delay in fontanel closure Parietal and frontal bossing Rachitic rosary Harrison sulcus (or groove) Widening of the wrist Bowing of the distal radius and ulna Progressive lateral bowing of long bones	Widening, cupping and fraying of the metaphysis Irregular and widened epiphyseal plate Periosteal reaction	High signal intensity of unossified cartilage in the physis of the primary and secondary ossification centers No mass lesion or ossification in the physis

References

↑ Takahashi K, Oharaseki T, Yokouchi Y (2011). "Pathogenesis of Kawasaki disease". Clin Exp Immunol. 164 Suppl 1: 20–2. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04361.x. PMC 3095860. PMID 21447126.
↑ Howard T, Ahmad K, Swanson JA, Misra S (2014). "Polyarteritis nodosa". Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 17 (4): 247–51. doi:10.1053/j.tvir.2014.11.005. PMC 4363102. PMID 25770638.
↑ Sharma A, Sharma K (September 2013). "Hepatotropic viral infection associated systemic vasculitides-hepatitis B virus associated polyarteritis nodosa and hepatitis C virus associated cryoglobulinemic vasculitis". J Clin Exp Hepatol. 3 (3): 204–12. doi:10.1016/j.jceh.2013.06.001. PMC 4216827. PMID 25755502.
↑ Heegaard ED, Brown KE (2002). "Human parvovirus B19". Clin Microbiol Rev. 15 (3): 485–505. PMC 118081. PMID 12097253.
↑ Basetti S, Hodgson J, Rawson TM, Majeed A (2017). "Scarlet fever: a guide for general practitioners". London J Prim Care (Abingdon). 9 (5): 77–79. doi:10.1080/17571472.2017.1365677. PMC 5649319. PMID 29081840.
↑ Vostral SL (2011). "Rely and Toxic Shock Syndrome: a technological health crisis". Yale J Biol Med. 84 (4): 447–59. PMC 3238331. PMID 22180682.
↑ Balfour HH, Dunmire SK, Hogquist KA (2015). "Infectious mononucleosis". Clin Transl Immunology. 4 (2): e33. doi:10.1038/cti.2015.1. PMC 4346501. PMID 25774295.
↑ Levett PN (April 2001). "Leptospirosis". Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14 (2): 296–326. doi:10.1128/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001. PMC 88975. PMID 11292640.
↑ Biesiada G, Czepiel J, Leśniak MR, Garlicki A, Mach T (2012). "Lyme disease: review". Arch Med Sci. 8 (6): 978–82. doi:10.5114/aoms.2012.30948. PMC 3542482. PMID 23319969.
↑ White SJ, Boldt KL, Holditch SJ, Poland GA, Jacobson RM (2012). "Measles, mumps, and rubella". Clin Obstet Gynecol. 55 (2): 550–9. doi:10.1097/GRF.0b013e31824df256. PMC 3334858. PMID 22510638.
↑ Walker DH (1989). "Rocky Mountain spotted fever: a disease in need of microbiological concern". Clin Microbiol Rev. 2 (3): 227–40. PMC 358117. PMID 2504480.
↑ Mishra AK, Yadav P, Mishra A (2016). "A Systemic Review on Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS): A Rare and Critical Disease of Neonates". Open Microbiol J. 10: 150–9. doi:10.2174/1874285801610010150. PMC 5012080. PMID 27651848.
↑ Hoetzenecker W, Mehra T, Saulite I, Glatz M, Schmid-Grendelmeier P, Guenova E; et al. (2016). "Toxic epidermal necrolysis". F1000Res. 5. doi:10.12688/f1000research.7574.1. PMC 4879934. PMID 27239294.
↑ Chaturvedi S, McCrae KR (2015). "The antiphospholipid syndrome: still an enigma". Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2015: 53–60. doi:10.1182/asheducation-2015.1.53. PMC 4877624. PMID 26637701.
↑ Espinosa M, Gottlieb BS (July 2012). "Juvenile idiopathic arthritis". Pediatr Rev. 33 (7): 303–13. doi:10.1542/pir.33-7-303. PMID 22753788.
↑ ^16.0 ^16.1 Sridharan, Radhika; Mohd Zaki, Faizah; Sook Pei, Tan; Swee Ping, Tang; Ibrahim, Sharaf (2012). "NOMID: The radiographic and MRI features and review of literature". Journal of Radiology Case Reports. 6 (3). doi:10.3941/jrcr.v6i3.745. ISSN 1943-0922.
↑ Ahmadi, Neda; Brewer, Carmen C.; Zalewski, Christopher; King, Kelly A.; Butman, John A.; Plass, Nicole; Henderson, Cailin; Goldbach-Mansky, Raphaela; Kim, H. Jeffrey (2011). "Cryopyrin-Associated Periodic Syndromes". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 145 (2): 295–302. doi:10.1177/0194599811402296. ISSN 0194-5998.
↑ Yulish, B S; Lieberman, J M; Newman, A J; Bryan, P J; Mulopulos, G P; Modic, M T (1987). "Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: assessment with MR imaging". Radiology. 165 (1): 149–152. doi:10.1148/radiology.165.1.3628761. ISSN 0033-8419.
↑ Edward M. Behrens, Timothy Beukelman, Lisa Gallo, Julie Spangler, Margalit Rosenkranz, Thaschawee Arkachaisri, Rosanne Ayala, Brandt Groh, Terri H. Finkel & Randy Q. Cron (2008). "Evaluation of the presentation of systemic onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: data from the Pennsylvania Systemic Onset Juvenile Arthritis Registry (PASOJAR)". The Journal of rheumatology. 35 (2): 343–348. PMID 18085728. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
↑ Aygun, Deniz; Barut, Kenan; Camcioglu, Yildiz; Kasapcopur, Ozgur (2015). "Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis: a rare skeletal disorder". BMJ Case Reports: bcr2015210061. doi:10.1136/bcr-2015-210061. ISSN 1757-790X.
↑ Ferguson, Polly J.; Sandu, Monica (2012). "Current Understanding of the Pathogenesis and Management of Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis". Current Rheumatology Reports. 14 (2): 130–141. doi:10.1007/s11926-012-0239-5. ISSN 1523-3774.
↑ Khanna, Geetika; Sato, Takashi S. P.; Ferguson, Polly (2009). "Imaging of Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis". RadioGraphics. 29 (4): 1159–1177. doi:10.1148/rg.294085244. ISSN 0271-5333.
↑ Madhusmita Misra, Daniele Pacaud, Anna Petryk, Paulo Ferrez Collett-Solberg & Michael Kappy (2008). "Vitamin D deficiency in children and its management: review of current knowledge and recommendations". Pediatrics. 122 (2): 398–417. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1894. PMID 18676559. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
↑ Ecklund, K.; Doria, Andrea S.; Jaramillo, Diego (1999). "Rickets on MR images". Pediatric Radiology. 29 (9): 673–675. doi:10.1007/s002470050673. ISSN 0301-0449.

Template:WH Template:WS

[1] Sandborg CI, Schulert GS, Kimura Y. Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2025;392:XXX–XXX. doi:10.1056/NEJMra2402073.

[pmid21447126-2] Takahashi K, Oharaseki T, Yokouchi Y (2011). "Pathogenesis of Kawasaki disease". Clin Exp Immunol. 164 Suppl 1: 20–2. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04361.x. PMC 3095860. PMID 21447126.

[pmid25770638-3] Howard T, Ahmad K, Swanson JA, Misra S (2014). "Polyarteritis nodosa". Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 17 (4): 247–51. doi:10.1053/j.tvir.2014.11.005. PMC 4363102. PMID 25770638.

[pmid25755502-4] Sharma A, Sharma K (September 2013). "Hepatotropic viral infection associated systemic vasculitides-hepatitis B virus associated polyarteritis nodosa and hepatitis C virus associated cryoglobulinemic vasculitis". J Clin Exp Hepatol. 3 (3): 204–12. doi:10.1016/j.jceh.2013.06.001. PMC 4216827. PMID 25755502.

[pmid12097253-5] Heegaard ED, Brown KE (2002). "Human parvovirus B19". Clin Microbiol Rev. 15 (3): 485–505. PMC 118081. PMID 12097253.

[pmid29081840-6] Basetti S, Hodgson J, Rawson TM, Majeed A (2017). "Scarlet fever: a guide for general practitioners". London J Prim Care (Abingdon). 9 (5): 77–79. doi:10.1080/17571472.2017.1365677. PMC 5649319. PMID 29081840.

[pmid22180682-7] Vostral SL (2011). "Rely and Toxic Shock Syndrome: a technological health crisis". Yale J Biol Med. 84 (4): 447–59. PMC 3238331. PMID 22180682.

[pmid25774295-8] Balfour HH, Dunmire SK, Hogquist KA (2015). "Infectious mononucleosis". Clin Transl Immunology. 4 (2): e33. doi:10.1038/cti.2015.1. PMC 4346501. PMID 25774295.

[pmid11292640-9] Levett PN (April 2001). "Leptospirosis". Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14 (2): 296–326. doi:10.1128/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001. PMC 88975. PMID 11292640.

[pmid23319969-10] Biesiada G, Czepiel J, Leśniak MR, Garlicki A, Mach T (2012). "Lyme disease: review". Arch Med Sci. 8 (6): 978–82. doi:10.5114/aoms.2012.30948. PMC 3542482. PMID 23319969.

[pmid22510638-11] White SJ, Boldt KL, Holditch SJ, Poland GA, Jacobson RM (2012). "Measles, mumps, and rubella". Clin Obstet Gynecol. 55 (2): 550–9. doi:10.1097/GRF.0b013e31824df256. PMC 3334858. PMID 22510638.

[pmid2504480-12] Walker DH (1989). "Rocky Mountain spotted fever: a disease in need of microbiological concern". Clin Microbiol Rev. 2 (3): 227–40. PMC 358117. PMID 2504480.

[pmid27651848-13] Mishra AK, Yadav P, Mishra A (2016). "A Systemic Review on Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS): A Rare and Critical Disease of Neonates". Open Microbiol J. 10: 150–9. doi:10.2174/1874285801610010150. PMC 5012080. PMID 27651848.

[pmid27239294-14] Hoetzenecker W, Mehra T, Saulite I, Glatz M, Schmid-Grendelmeier P, Guenova E; et al. (2016). "Toxic epidermal necrolysis". F1000Res. 5. doi:10.12688/f1000research.7574.1. PMC 4879934. PMID 27239294.

[pmid26637701-15] Chaturvedi S, McCrae KR (2015). "The antiphospholipid syndrome: still an enigma". Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2015: 53–60. doi:10.1182/asheducation-2015.1.53. PMC 4877624. PMID 26637701.

[pmid22753788-16] Espinosa M, Gottlieb BS (July 2012). "Juvenile idiopathic arthritis". Pediatr Rev. 33 (7): 303–13. doi:10.1542/pir.33-7-303. PMID 22753788.

[SridharanMohd_Zaki2012-17] 16.0 ^16.1 Sridharan, Radhika; Mohd Zaki, Faizah; Sook Pei, Tan; Swee Ping, Tang; Ibrahim, Sharaf (2012). "NOMID: The radiographic and MRI features and review of literature". Journal of Radiology Case Reports. 6 (3). doi:10.3941/jrcr.v6i3.745. ISSN 1943-0922.

[AhmadiBrewer2011-18] Ahmadi, Neda; Brewer, Carmen C.; Zalewski, Christopher; King, Kelly A.; Butman, John A.; Plass, Nicole; Henderson, Cailin; Goldbach-Mansky, Raphaela; Kim, H. Jeffrey (2011). "Cryopyrin-Associated Periodic Syndromes". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 145 (2): 295–302. doi:10.1177/0194599811402296. ISSN 0194-5998.

[YulishLieberman1987-19] Yulish, B S; Lieberman, J M; Newman, A J; Bryan, P J; Mulopulos, G P; Modic, M T (1987). "Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: assessment with MR imaging". Radiology. 165 (1): 149–152. doi:10.1148/radiology.165.1.3628761. ISSN 0033-8419.

[20] Edward M. Behrens, Timothy Beukelman, Lisa Gallo, Julie Spangler, Margalit Rosenkranz, Thaschawee Arkachaisri, Rosanne Ayala, Brandt Groh, Terri H. Finkel & Randy Q. Cron (2008). "Evaluation of the presentation of systemic onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: data from the Pennsylvania Systemic Onset Juvenile Arthritis Registry (PASOJAR)". The Journal of rheumatology. 35 (2): 343–348. PMID 18085728. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[AygunBarut2015-21] Aygun, Deniz; Barut, Kenan; Camcioglu, Yildiz; Kasapcopur, Ozgur (2015). "Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis: a rare skeletal disorder". BMJ Case Reports: bcr2015210061. doi:10.1136/bcr-2015-210061. ISSN 1757-790X.

[FergusonSandu2012-22] Ferguson, Polly J.; Sandu, Monica (2012). "Current Understanding of the Pathogenesis and Management of Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis". Current Rheumatology Reports. 14 (2): 130–141. doi:10.1007/s11926-012-0239-5. ISSN 1523-3774.

[KhannaSato2009-23] Khanna, Geetika; Sato, Takashi S. P.; Ferguson, Polly (2009). "Imaging of Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis". RadioGraphics. 29 (4): 1159–1177. doi:10.1148/rg.294085244. ISSN 0271-5333.

[24] Madhusmita Misra, Daniele Pacaud, Anna Petryk, Paulo Ferrez Collett-Solberg & Michael Kappy (2008). "Vitamin D deficiency in children and its management: review of current knowledge and recommendations". Pediatrics. 122 (2): 398–417. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1894. PMID 18676559. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

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