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{{Pneumonia}}
{{Pneumonia}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}, {{HQ}}, [[Priyamvada Singh|Priyamvada Singh, M.D.]] [mailto:psingh13579@gmail.com]; {{AL}}; {{Ochuko}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{HQ}}, [[Priyamvada Singh|Priyamvada Singh, M.D.]] [mailto:psingh13579@gmail.com]; {{AL}}; {{Ochuko}}


==Overview==
==Overview==

Revision as of 16:34, 1 March 2018

Pneumonia Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Hamid Qazi, MD, BSc [2], Priyamvada Singh, M.D. [3]; Alejandro Lemor, M.D. [4]; Ogheneochuko Ajari, MB.BS, MS [5]

Overview

Pneumonia can result from a variety of causes, including infection with bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and chemical or physical injury to the lungs. The etiology will depend upon various factors such as age, immune status, geographical area, and comorbidities.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.

Common Causes

Community Acquired Pneumonia

Most Common Etiologies for Community-Acquired Pneumonia [1][2][3]

Outpatient Inpatient (non-ICU) Inpatient (ICU)
  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  3. Haemophilus influenzae
  4. Chlamydophila pneumoniae
  5. Influenza A and B, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza
  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  3. Haemophilus influenzae
  4. Legionella
  5. Aspiration
  6. Influenza A and B, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza
  7. Yersinia enterocolitica
  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Staphylococcus aureus
  3. Legionella
  4. Gram-negative bacilli
  5. Haemophilus influenzae
  6. Acinetobacter baumannii

Common Causes by Age Group

Age Group Neonates Children Adults
Bacteria
  1. Listeria monocytogenes
  2. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  1. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  2. Chlamydophila pneumoniae
  3. Legionella pneumophila
  4. Chlamydia trachomatis

Typical Bacteria

  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Haemophilus influenzae
  3. Escherichia coli
  4. Klebsiella pneumoniae
  5. Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Atypical Bacteria

  1. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  2. Chlamydophila pneumoniae
  3. Legionella pneumophila
Virus
  1. Herpes simplex virus
  2. Adenovirus
  3. Mumps
  4. Enterovirus
  1. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
  2. Metapneumovirus
  3. Adenovirus
  4. Parainfluenza
  5. Influenza
  6. Rhinovirus
  1. Influenza
  2. Parainfluenza
  3. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
  4. Metapneumovirus
  5. Adenovirus
  • Newborn infants, children, and adults are at risk for different spectrums of disease causing microorganisms.
  • In addition, adults with chronic illnesses, who live in certain parts of the world, who reside in nursing homes, who have recently been treated with antibiotics, or who are alcoholics are at risk for unique infections.

Infants and Newborns

Children

Adults

The causes of CAP in adults are outlined in the following categories.

Viruses
Streptococcus pneumoniae
  • Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia.
  • Aspiration pneumonia is most commonly caused by anaerobic organisms.
  • Prior to the development of antibiotics and vaccination, it was a leading cause of death.
  • Traditionally, it was highly sensitive to penicillin, but during the 1970s resistance to multiple antibiotics began to develop.
  • Current strains of drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (DRSP) are common, accounting for twenty percent of all streptococcal infections.
  • risk factors for DRSP in adults include: being older than 65, having exposure to children in day care, alcoholism, other severe underlying disease, or recent treatment with antibiotics; individuals exposed to these risk factors should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against DRSP.[10]
Atypical Organisms
  • Mycoplasma pneumoniae is often referred to as "walking pneumonia." It is transmitted via respiratory droplets and is common among healthy individuals in close contact with one another in settings such as dormitories or military barracks.
  • Atypical organisms are more difficult to grow and respond to different antibiotics; they were discovered more recently than the typical bacteria discovered in the early twentieth century.
Haemophilus influenzae
  • Haemophilus influenzae used to be a common bacterial cause of CAP.
  • First discovered in 1892, it was initially believed to be the cause of influenza because it commonly causes CAP in people who have suffered recent lung damage from viral pneumonia.
Enteric Gram-Negative Bacteria
  • Enteric bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae may cause commnity-acquired penumonia.
  • risk factors in adults for infection include: living in a nursing home, serious heart and lung disease, and recent antibiotic use; these individuals should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against enteric Gram-negative bacteria.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Special Situations
Aspiration Pneumonia

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular No underlying causes
Chemical/Poisoning No underlying cause
Dental No underlying causes
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect No underlying cause
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine No underlying causes
Environmental No underlying cause
Gastroenterologic No underlying cause
Genetic No underlying cause
Hematologic No underlying causes
Iatrogenic No underlying cause
Infectious Disease Acinetobacter baumannii, Actinomycosis, Adenovirus (serotype 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 14, 21, 35), AIDS-related opportunistic infections, Aspergillosis, Aspiration, Bacillus anthracis, Bird flu (avian influenza), Blastomycosis, Burkholderia cepacia, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chickenpox, Coccidioides immitis, Coronavirus, Coxiella burnetii (Q fever), Cryptococcus neoformans, Cytomegalovirus, Escherichia coli, Enterovirus, Francisella tularensis, Gram-negative bacilli, Haemophilus influenzae, H1N1 flu, Hantavirus, Herpes simplex virus, Histoplasma capsulatum, Histoplasmosis, Human bocavirus, Human parechovirus types 1, 2, and 3, Influenza, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella micdadei, Legionella pneumophila (Legionnaires' disease), Listeria monocytogenes, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Measles, Melioidosis, Metapneumovirus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Moraxella catarrhalis, Mumps, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare, Mycobacterium haemophilum, Mycobacterium kansasii, Neisseria meningitidis, New Haven coronavirus, Nocardia, Paragonimiasis, Parainfluenza, Pneumocystis jiroveci, Pneumonic plague, Proteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Chlamydophila psittaci (psittacosis), Rat-bite fever, Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), Rhinovirus, Rhodococcus equi, Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), SARS, Serratia, Severe acute respiratory syndrome, Sporotrichosis , Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus), Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus), Streptococcus pneumoniae, Swine flu, Toxocariasis , Toxoplasma gondii, Trichosporon , Trypanosomiasis, Typhus, Varicella-zoster virus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Yersinia pestis, Zygomycosis
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic No underlying causes
Neurologic No underlying causes
Nutritional/Metabolic No underlying cause
Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic No underlying cause
Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose/Toxicity No underlying cause
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal/Electrolyte No underlying causes
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy No underlying cause
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma No underlying causes
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous No underlying cause

Hospital Acquired Pneumonia

The causes of hospital acquired pneumonia are as follows:[5]

Aerobic Gram Negative Pathogens

Gram-Positive Pathogens

Elderly Population

  • S. aureus
  • Enteric gram-negative rods
  • Streptococcus pneumoniae
  • Pseudomonas

Ventilator-associated Pneumonia (VAP)

  • The microbiologic flora responsible for VAP is different from that of the more common community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). In particular, viruses and fungi are uncommon causes in people who do not have underlying immune deficiencies.
  • Though any microorganism that causes CAP can cause VAP, there are several bacteria which are particularly important causes of VAP because of their resistance to commonly used antibiotics. These bacteria are referred to as multidrug resistant (MDR).
  • VAP has been classified into either early-onset pneumonia (EOP), if pneumonia develops within 96 hours of the patient’s admission to an ICU or intubation for mechanical ventilation, and late-onset pneumonia (LOP), if pneumonia develops after 96 hours of the patient’s admission to an ICU or intubation for mechanical ventilation. [6]
  • This categorization can be helpful to clinicians in initiating empiric antimicrobial therapy for cases of pneumonia, when the results of microbiologic diagnostic testing are not yet available.
  • EOP has been associated usually with non-multi-antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Proteus spp., S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, and oxacillin-sensitive S. aureus.
  • On the other hand, LOP has been associated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, oxacillin-resistant S. aureus, and Acinetobacter spp (strains that are usually multi-antibiotic-resistant).

The following is a list of the most MDR common pathogens associated with ventilator-associated pneumonia:


Causes in Alphabetical Order

Causes in Aphabetical Order

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4

Microbiological Etiology

Typical Bacteria Atypical Bacteria Viruses
  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Haemophilus influenzae
  3. Staphylococcus aureus
  4. Escherichia coli
  5. Klebsiella pneumoniae
  6. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  1. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  2. Chlamydophila pneumoniae
  3. Legionella pneumophila
  1. Influenza
  2. Parainfluenza
  3. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
  4. Metapneumovirus
  5. Adenovirus

Most Common Etiologies for Community-Acquired Pneumonia [1][2][3]

Outpatient Inpatient (non-ICU) Inpatient (ICU)
  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  3. Haemophilus influenzae
  4. Chlamydophila pneumoniae
  5. Influenza A and B, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza
  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  3. Haemophilus influenzae
  4. Legionella
  5. Aspiration
  6. Influenza A and B, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza
  7. Yersinia enterocolitica
  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Staphylococcus aureus
  3. Legionella
  4. Gram-negative bacilli
  5. Haemophilus influenzae
  6. Acinetobacter baumannii

Causes by Pathogen

Click here for bacterial pneumonia
Click here for viral pneumonia
Click here for fungal pneumonia

Causes by Age

Common Causes by Age Group
Pathogen Neonates Children Adults
Bacteria
  1. Listeria monocytogenes
  2. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  1. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  2. Chlamydophila pneumoniae
  3. Legionella pneumophila
  4. Chlamydia trachomatis

Typical Bacteria

  1. Streptococcus pneumoniae
  2. Haemophilus influenzae
  3. Escherichia coli
  4. Klebsiella pneumoniae
  5. Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Atypical Bacteria

  1. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
  2. Chlamydophila pneumoniae
  3. Legionella pneumophila
Virus
  1. Herpes simplex virus
  2. Adenovirus
  3. Mumps
  4. Enterovirus
  1. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
  2. Metapneumovirus
  3. Adenovirus
  4. Parainfluenza
  5. Influenza
  6. Rhinovirus
  1. Influenza
  2. Parainfluenza
  3. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
  4. Metapneumovirus
  5. Adenovirus
  • Newborn infants, children, and adults are at risk for different spectrums of disease causing microorganisms.
  • In addition, adults with chronic illnesses, who live in certain parts of the world, who reside in nursing homes, who have recently been treated with antibiotics, or who are alcoholics are at risk for unique infections.

Infants

Source of Infection

  • Aerosol
  • Aspiration of amniotic fluid
  • Blood-borne infection across the placenta
Newborn

Children

Adults

Viruses

Atypical Organisms

  • Mycoplasma pneumoniae, chlamydophila pneumoniae, and legionella pneumophila are often grouped as atypical pneumonia. Community acquired pneumonia caused by these agents present insidiously, with a non-productive cough and prominent extra-pulmonary complaints, such as myalgias and diarrhea (lack the typical pneumonia symptoms of fever, cough, and sputum).
  • Mycoplasma pneumonia is often called is "walking pneumonia." It is transmitted via respiratory droplets and is common among healthy individuals in close contact with one another, such as dormitories or military barracks.
  • Atypical organisms are more difficult to grow, respond to different antibiotics, and were discovered more recently than the typical bacteria discovered in the early twentieth century.

Streptococcus Pneumoniae

  • Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of community acquired pneumonia.
  • Aspiration pneumonia is most commonly caused by anaerobic organisms.
  • Prior to the development of antibiotics and vaccination, it was a leading cause of death.
  • Traditionally, it was highly sensitive to penicillin, but during the 1970s resistance to multiple antibiotics began to develop.
  • Current strains of "drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae" or DRSP are common, accounting for twenty percent of all streptococcus pneumoniae infections.
  • Adults with risk factors for DRSP including being older than 65, having exposure to children in day care, alcoholism, other severe underlying disease, or recent treatment with antibiotics should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against DRSP.[11]

Hemophilus Influenzae

  • Another common bacterial cause of CAP.
  • First discovered in 1892, it was initially believed to be the cause of influenza because it commonly causes CAP in people who have suffered recent lung damage from viral pneumonia.

Enteric Gram Negative Bacteria

Pseudomonas Aeruginosa

  • Uncommon cause of CAP, but it is a particularly difficult bacteria to treat.
  • Individuals who are malnourished, have bronchiectasis, are on corticosteroids, or have recently had strong antibiotics for a week or more, should initially be treated with antibiotics effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.[12]

Special Situations

Aspiration Pneumonia Causes

  • Incompetent swallowing mechanism, such as in neurological disease (a common cause being strokes) or while a person is intoxicated.
  • Iatrogenic causes such as general anaesthesia for an operation. Patients are therefore instructed to be nil per os (NPO) for at least four hours before surgery.
  • Whether aspiration pneumonia represents a true bacterial infection or a chemical inflammatory process remains the subject of significant controversy.

Drug Side Effect

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, Dowell SF, File TM, Musher DM, Niederman MS, Torres A, Whitney CG (2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 44 Suppl 2: S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMID 17278083. Retrieved 2012-09-06. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. 2.0 2.1 Wong, KK.; Fistek, M.; Watkins, RR. (2013). "Community-acquired pneumonia caused by Yersinia enterocolitica in an immunocompetent patient". J Med Microbiol. 62 (Pt 4): 650–1. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.053488-0. PMID 23242642. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. 3.0 3.1 Oh, YJ.; Song, SH.; Baik, SH.; Lee, HH.; Han, IM.; Oh, DH. (2013). "A case of fulminant community-acquired Acinetobacter baumannii pneumonia in Korea". Korean J Intern Med. 28 (4): 486–90. doi:10.3904/kjim.2013.28.4.486. PMID 23864808. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. Shachor-Meyouhas, Y.; Arad-Cohen, N.; Zaidman, I.; Gefen, A.; Kassis, I. (2012). "[Legionella pneumonia in a child with leukemia]". Harefuah. 151 (8): 479–82, 496. PMID 23350295. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. "Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 171 (4): 388–416. 2005. doi:10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST. PMID 15699079. Retrieved 2012-09-12. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. "CDC GUIDELINES FOR PREVENTING HEALTH-CARE-ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA, 2003" (PDF).
  7. Webber S, Wilkinson AR, Lindsell D, Hope PL, Dobson SR, Isaacs D (1990). "Neonatal pneumonia". Arch Dis Child. 65 (2): 207–11. PMC 1792235. PMID 2107797.
  8. Wubbel L, Muniz L, Ahmed A, Trujillo M, Carubelli C, McCoig C; et al. (1999). "Etiology and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in ambulatory children". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 18 (2): 98–104. PMID 10048679.
  9. Abzug MJ, Beam AC, Gyorkos EA, Levin MJ (1990). "Viral pneumonia in the first month of life". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 9 (12): 881–5. PMID 2177540.
  10. de Roux A, Marcos MA, Garcia E, Mensa J, Ewig S, Lode H; et al. (2004). "Viral community-acquired pneumonia in nonimmunocompromised adults". Chest. 125 (4): 1343–51. PMID 15078744. Check |pmid= value (help).
  11. Ruhe JJ, Myers L, Mushatt D, Hasbun R (2004). "High-level penicillin-nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteremia: identification of a low-risk subgroup". Clin Infect Dis. 38 (4): 508–14. doi:10.1086/381197. PMID 14765343.
  12. Lieberman D, Schlaeffer F, Boldur I, Lieberman D, Horowitz S, Friedman MG; et al. (1996). "Multiple pathogens in adult patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia: a one year prospective study of 346 consecutive patients". Thorax. 51 (2): 179–84. PMC 473032. PMID 8711652.

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