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==Differential Diagnosis==
==Differential Diagnosis==
The various types of glomerulonephritides should be differentiated from each other based on associations, presence of [[pitting edema]], hemeturia, [[hypertension]], [[hemoptysis]], [[oliguria]], peri-orbital edema, [[hyperlipidemia]], type of [[antibodies]], [[Light microscope|light]] and [[Electron microscopy|electron microscopic]] features.
The following table differentiates between various types of glomerulonephritides:<ref name="pmid17195422">{{cite journal |vauthors=Saha TC, Singh H |title=Minimal change disease: a review |journal=South. Med. J. |volume=99 |issue=11 |pages=1264–70 |date=November 2006 |pmid=17195422 |doi=10.1097/01.smj.0000243183.87381.c2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27092244">{{cite journal |vauthors=Saleem MA, Kobayashi Y |title=Cell biology and genetics of minimal change disease |journal=F1000Res |volume=5 |issue= |pages= |date=2016 |pmid=27092244 |pmc=4821284 |doi=10.12688/f1000research.7300.1 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26064510">{{cite journal |vauthors=Keskar V, Jamale TE, Kulkarni MJ, Kiggal Jagadish P, Fernandes G, Hase N |title=Minimal-change disease in adolescents and adults: epidemiology and therapeutic response |journal=Clin Kidney J |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=469–72 |date=October 2013 |pmid=26064510 |pmc=4438390 |doi=10.1093/ckj/sft063 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21974967">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chugh SS, Clement LC, Macé C |title=New insights into human minimal change disease: lessons from animal models |journal=Am. J. Kidney Dis. |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=284–92 |date=February 2012 |pmid=21974967 |pmc=3253318 |doi=10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.07.024 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28242845">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenberg AZ, Kopp JB |title=Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis |journal=Clin J Am Soc Nephrol |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=502–517 |date=March 2017 |pmid=28242845 |pmc=5338705 |doi=10.2215/CJN.05960616 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25168829">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jefferson JA, Shankland SJ |title=The pathogenesis of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis |journal=Adv Chronic Kidney Dis |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=408–16 |date=September 2014 |pmid=25168829 |pmc=4149756 |doi=10.1053/j.ackd.2014.05.009 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2429634">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gephardt GN, Tubbs RR, Popowniak KL, McMahon JT |title=Focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis. Immunohistologic study of 20 renal biopsy specimens |journal=Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. |volume=110 |issue=10 |pages=902–5 |date=October 1986 |pmid=2429634 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25558821">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lai WL, Yeh TH, Chen PM, Chan CK, Chiang WC, Chen YM, Wu KD, Tsai TJ |title=Membranous nephropathy: a review on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment |journal=J. Formos. Med. Assoc. |volume=114 |issue=2 |pages=102–11 |date=February 2015 |pmid=25558821 |doi=10.1016/j.jfma.2014.11.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10495797">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wasserstein AG |title=Membranous glomerulonephritis |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=664–74 |date=April 1997 |pmid=10495797 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21949093">{{cite journal |vauthors=Suzuki H, Kiryluk K, Novak J, Moldoveanu Z, Herr AB, Renfrow MB, Wyatt RJ, Scolari F, Mestecky J, Gharavi AG, Julian BA |title=The pathophysiology of IgA nephropathy |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=1795–803 |date=October 2011 |pmid=21949093 |pmc=3892742 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2011050464 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23782179">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wyatt RJ, Julian BA |title=IgA nephropathy |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=368 |issue=25 |pages=2402–14 |date=June 2013 |pmid=23782179 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1206793 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22373436">{{cite journal |vauthors=He S, Wu Z |title=Gene-based Higher Criticism methods for large-scale exonic single-nucleotide polymorphism data |journal=BMC Proc |volume=5 Suppl 9 |issue= |pages=S65 |date=November 2011 |pmid=22373436 |pmc=3287904 |doi=10.1186/1753-6561-5-S9-S65 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8746284">{{cite journal |vauthors=Higgins RM, Goldsmith DJ, Connolly J, Scoble JE, Hendry BM, Ackrill P, Venning MC |title=Vasculitis and rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis in the elderly |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=72 |issue=843 |pages=41–4 |date=January 1996 |pmid=8746284 |pmc=2398323 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12631105">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jennette JC |title=Rapidly progressive crescentic glomerulonephritis |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=1164–77 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12631105 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00843.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8914046">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bolton WK |title=Goodpasture's syndrome |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=1753–66 |date=November 1996 |pmid=8914046 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1090223">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mathew TH, Hobbs JB, Kalowski S, Sutherland PW, Kincaid-Smith P |title=Goodpasture's syndrome: normal renal diagnostic findings |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=215–8 |date=February 1975 |pmid=1090223 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18172777">{{cite journal |vauthors=Renaudineau Y, Le Meur Y |title=Renal involvement in Wegener's granulomatosis |journal=Clin Rev Allergy Immunol |volume=35 |issue=1-2 |pages=22–9 |date=October 2008 |pmid=18172777 |doi=10.1007/s12016-007-8066-6 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6384024">{{cite journal |vauthors=Weiss MA, Crissman JD |title=Renal biopsy findings in Wegener's granulomatosis: segmental necrotizing glomerulonephritis with glomerular thrombosis |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=943–56 |date=October 1984 |pmid=6384024 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16632015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sinico RA, Di Toma L, Maggiore U, Tosoni C, Bottero P, Sabadini E, Giammarresi G, Tumiati B, Gregorini G, Pesci A, Monti S, Balestrieri G, Garini G, Vecchio F, Buzio C |title=Renal involvement in Churg-Strauss syndrome |journal=Am. J. Kidney Dis. |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=770–9 |date=May 2006 |pmid=16632015 |doi=10.1053/j.ajkd.2006.01.026 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21325353">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cartin-Ceba R, Keogh KA, Specks U, Sethi S, Fervenza FC |title=Rituximab for the treatment of Churg-Strauss syndrome with renal involvement |journal=Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=2865–71 |date=September 2011 |pmid=21325353 |pmc=3218640 |doi=10.1093/ndt/gfq852 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20688249">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chung SA, Seo P |title=Microscopic polyangiitis |journal=Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=545–58 |date=August 2010 |pmid=20688249 |pmc=2917831 |doi=10.1016/j.rdc.2010.04.003 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18524109">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pagnoux C |title=[Wegener's granulomatosis and microscopic polyangiitis] |language=French |journal=Rev Prat |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=522–32 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18524109 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19908070">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alchi B, Jayne D |title=Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=1409–18 |date=August 2010 |pmid=19908070 |pmc=2887509 |doi=10.1007/s00467-009-1322-7 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid657595">{{cite journal |vauthors=Davis AE, Schneeberger EE, Grupe WE, McCluskey RT |title=Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN type I) and dense deposit disease (DDD) in children |journal=Clin. Nephrol. |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=184–93 |date=May 1978 |pmid=657595 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Glomerulonephritis
! rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Sub-entity
! rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Causes and associations
! colspan="7" rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |History and Symtoms
! colspan="9" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Laboratory Findings
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Diseases
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Hyperlipidemia and hypercholesterolemia
! colspan="4" |Laboratory Findings
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Nephrotic features
! colspan="4" |Physical Examination
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Nephritic features
! colspan="4" |History and Symptoms
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |ANCA
! rowspan="2" |Other Findings
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Anti-glomerular basement membrane antibody (Anti-GBM antibody)
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Immune complex formation
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Light microscope
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Electron microscope
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Immunoflourescence pattern
|-
|-
!Lab Test 1
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |History
!Lab Test 2
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Pitting edema
!Lab Test 3
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Hemeturia (pre-dominantly microscopic)
!Lab Test 4
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Hypertension
!Physical Finding 1
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Hemoptysis
!Physical Finding 2
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Oliguria
!Physical Finding 3
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Peri-orbital edema
!Physical Finding 4
!Finding 1
!Finding 2
!Finding 3
!Finding 4
|-
|-
|Differential Diagnosis 1
| rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Non-proliferative
![[Minimal change disease]]
|
|
* [[Idiopathic]]
* [[Protein]] [[Protein tyrosine phosphatase|tyrosine phosphatase]] receptor type O (glomerular epithelial protein 1- GLEPP1)
|
|
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
* Young children
* Recent [[infection]] and [[immunization]]
* [[Atopy]]
* [[Hodgkin's lymphoma|Hodgkin lymphoma]]
* [[Thrombosis]] (due to [[Urinary system|urinary]] loss of [[Antithrombin III|antithrombin-III]])
|
|
+
|
|
-
|
|
-
|
|
-
|
|
|✔
+/-
|
|
-
|
|
+
|
|
+
|
|
|-
-
|Differential Diagnosis 2
|'''↑'''
|
|
-
|
|
-
|
|
-
|
|
* Normal
|
|
* Fusion of [[podocytes]]
|
|
-
|-
![[Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis]]
|
|
* Idiopathic
* [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]
* [[Heroine hydrochloride|Heroine]] use
* [[Sickle-cell disease|Sickle cell disease]]
* [[Interferon]]
* Severe [[obesity]]
* [[Cryoglobulinemia|Mixed cryoglobulinemia]] ([[Hepatitis C]])
|
|
|
* Adults
|
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
| +
| +
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* Focal (some [[glomeruli]]) and segmental (only part of [[glomerulus]])
|
|
* Effacement of [[podocytes]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
|-
|Differential Diagnosis 3
![[Membranous glomerulonephritis]]
|
|
|
* [[Idiopathic]]
* [[Hepatitis B]] and [[Hepatitis C|C]]
* [[Solid tumors]]
* [[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]
* Drugs ([[NSAIDS]], pencilamine, [[gold]], [[captopril]])
|
|
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
| +
| +
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|
|
* Thick [[glomerular basement membrane]]
|
|
* Sub-[[Epithelial cells|epithelial]] [[immune complex]] depositis with 'spike and dome' appearance
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
| rowspan="7" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Proliferative
![[IgA nephropathy]]
|
|
* [[Idiopathic]]
* [[Viral infections]]
|
|
* Young children
* History of [[mucosal]] [[infections]] (e.g. [[gastroenteritis]]) and [[upper respiratory tract infection]]
* 2-3 days after [[infection]] (synpharyngitic)
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
| -
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
| +
|
|
* Crescent formation
|
|
* [[Mesangial cell|Mesangial]] proliferation
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
! rowspan="5" |[[Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis]]
|
|
* [[Goodpasture syndrome]]
|
|
* Young adults
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
| -
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|
|
* Hypercellular and [[inflamed]] [[glomeruli]] (Crescent formation)
|
|
*  Diffuse thickening of the [[glomerular basement membrane]] with absence of sub-[[Epithelial cells|epithelial]] and sub-[[endothelial]] deposits 
|<nowiki>+ (Linear)</nowiki>
|-
|-
|Differential Diagnosis 4
|
|
|
|
* [[Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis|Post infectious glomerulonephritis]]
|
|
* [[Streptococcal infections|Streptococcal]] [[skin]] [[infections]]
* [[Streptococcus|Streptococcal]] [[pharyngitis]]
* 2-3 weeks after [[infection]]
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|
|
* Hypercellular and [[inflamed]] [[glomeruli]]
|
|
* Sub-[[epithelial]] [[immune complex]] deposits
| + (Granular)
|-
|
|
* [[Granulomatosis with polyangiitis|Granulomatosis with polyangitis]] ([[Wegener's granulomatosis|Wegner's granulomatosis]])
|
|
* [[Necrotizing]] [[granulomas]] ([[Nasopharynx]], [[lungs]], [[kidneys]])
* [[Conjunctivitis]]
* Ulceration of the [[cornea]]
* [[Episcleritis]]
* [[Peripheral neuropathy]]
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
| + ([[C-ANCA]])
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* Hypercellular and [[inflamed]] [[glomeruli]] (Crescent formation)
|<nowiki>-  (pauci-immune)</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|-
|
|
* [[Churg-Strauss syndrome|Churg Strauss syndrome]]
|
|
* [[Necrotizing]] [[granulomas]] ([[Lungs]] and [[kidneys]])
* [[Asthma]]
* [[Peripheral neuropathy]]
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|
|
+ ([[C-ANCA]])
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* Hypercellular and [[inflamed]] [[glomeruli]] (Crescent formation)
|<nowiki>- (pauci-immune)</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
|-
|Differential Diagnosis 5
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
* [[Microscopic polyangiitis]]
|
|
* [[Necrotizing]] [[vasculitis]] (no [[granuloma]])
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
| +
|
|
+ ([[P-ANCA]])
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* Hypercellular and [[inflamed]] [[glomeruli]] (Crescent formation)
|<nowiki>- (pauci-immune)</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
![[Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis]]
|
|
* [[Idiopathic]]
* [[Hepatitis B]] and [[Hepatitis C|C]] (Type 1)
* C3 nepritic factor (Type2)
|
|
* [[Hematuria]]
* [[Oliguria]]
* [[Periorbital edema]]
* [[Hypertension]]
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|
|
* Thick [[glomerular basement membrane]] (Tram-track appearance)
|
|
* [[Mesangial cell|Mesangial]] proliferation and [[Leukocytes|leukocyte]] infiltration
|<nowiki>+ (Granular)</nowiki>
|}
|}
==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}


{{WH}}{{WS}}
{{WH}}{{WS}}

Revision as of 15:33, 2 May 2018

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Ali Poyan Mehr, M.D. [2]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Olufunmilola Olubukola M.D.[3]

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Overview

Differential Diagnosis

The various types of glomerulonephritides should be differentiated from each other based on associations, presence of pitting edema, hemeturia, hypertension, hemoptysis, oliguria, peri-orbital edema, hyperlipidemia, type of antibodies, light and electron microscopic features. The following table differentiates between various types of glomerulonephritides:[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]

Glomerulonephritis Sub-entity Causes and associations History and Symtoms Laboratory Findings
Hyperlipidemia and hypercholesterolemia Nephrotic features Nephritic features ANCA Anti-glomerular basement membrane antibody (Anti-GBM antibody) Immune complex formation Light microscope Electron microscope Immunoflourescence pattern
History Pitting edema Hemeturia (pre-dominantly microscopic) Hypertension Hemoptysis Oliguria Peri-orbital edema
Non-proliferative Minimal change disease

+

-

-

-

+/-

-

+

+

-

-

-

-

  • Normal

-

Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
  • Adults
+ - - - +/- - + + - - - - -
Membranous glomerulonephritis + - - - +/- - + + - - - + -
Proliferative IgA nephropathy +/- + + - + +/- - - + - - +
  • Crescent formation
-
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis
  • Young adults
+/- + + + + + - - + - + + + (Linear)
+/- + + + + + - - + - - + + (Granular)
+/- + + + + + - - + + (C-ANCA) - - - (pauci-immune) +/-
+/- + + + + + - - +

+ (C-ANCA)

- - - (pauci-immune) -
+/- + + + + + - - +

+ (P-ANCA)

- - - (pauci-immune) -
Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis +/- + + + + + - + - - - + + (Granular)

References

  1. Saha TC, Singh H (November 2006). "Minimal change disease: a review". South. Med. J. 99 (11): 1264–70. doi:10.1097/01.smj.0000243183.87381.c2. PMID 17195422.
  2. Saleem MA, Kobayashi Y (2016). "Cell biology and genetics of minimal change disease". F1000Res. 5. doi:10.12688/f1000research.7300.1. PMC 4821284. PMID 27092244.
  3. Keskar V, Jamale TE, Kulkarni MJ, Kiggal Jagadish P, Fernandes G, Hase N (October 2013). "Minimal-change disease in adolescents and adults: epidemiology and therapeutic response". Clin Kidney J. 6 (5): 469–72. doi:10.1093/ckj/sft063. PMC 4438390. PMID 26064510.
  4. Chugh SS, Clement LC, Macé C (February 2012). "New insights into human minimal change disease: lessons from animal models". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 59 (2): 284–92. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.07.024. PMC 3253318. PMID 21974967.
  5. Rosenberg AZ, Kopp JB (March 2017). "Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis". Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 12 (3): 502–517. doi:10.2215/CJN.05960616. PMC 5338705. PMID 28242845.
  6. Jefferson JA, Shankland SJ (September 2014). "The pathogenesis of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis". Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 21 (5): 408–16. doi:10.1053/j.ackd.2014.05.009. PMC 4149756. PMID 25168829.
  7. Gephardt GN, Tubbs RR, Popowniak KL, McMahon JT (October 1986). "Focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis. Immunohistologic study of 20 renal biopsy specimens". Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 110 (10): 902–5. PMID 2429634.
  8. Lai WL, Yeh TH, Chen PM, Chan CK, Chiang WC, Chen YM, Wu KD, Tsai TJ (February 2015). "Membranous nephropathy: a review on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment". J. Formos. Med. Assoc. 114 (2): 102–11. doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2014.11.002. PMID 25558821.
  9. Wasserstein AG (April 1997). "Membranous glomerulonephritis". J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 8 (4): 664–74. PMID 10495797.
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