Urethritis causes: Difference between revisions

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{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{MehdiP}}
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==Overview==
==Overview==
Urethritis may be caused by either infectious or non infectious causes. Non-gonorrheal causes are the most common cause of urethritis.
Urethritis may be caused by either infectious or non-infectious causes. Infectious causes are divided into gonorrheal and non-gonorrheal. Non-gonorrheal pathogens are the most common cause of urethritis; [[Chlamydia trachomatis|''Chlamydia trachomatis'']] is the most common among them.


==Causes==
==Causes==
Urethritis may be caused by either infectious or non-infectious causes. Infectious causes are divided into ''gonorrheal'' and ''non-gonorrheal.''<ref name="pmid22000844">{{cite journal |vauthors=Al-Sweih NA, Khan S, Rotimi VO |title=The prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections among men with urethritis in Kuwait |journal=J Infect Public Health |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=175–9 |year=2011 |pmid=22000844 |doi=10.1016/j.jiph.2011.07.003 |url=}}</ref> Non-gonorrheal pathogens are the most common cause of urethritis, [[Chlamydia trachomatis]] on top of them.<ref name="kim">{{Cite journal
Urethritis may be caused by either [[infectious]] or non-infectious causes. [[Infectious]] causes are divided into [[gonococcal]] and [[non-gonococcal]]. Non-gonorrheal [[pathogens]] are the most common cause of urethritis; [[Chlamydia trachomatis|''Chlamydia trachomatis'']] is the most common among them.<ref name="kim">{{Cite journal
  | author = [[Kimberly A. Workowski]] & [[Gail A. Bolan]]
  | author = [[Kimberly A. Workowski]] & [[Gail A. Bolan]]
  | title = Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015
  | title = Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015
Line 17: Line 17:
  | pmid = 26042815
  | pmid = 26042815
}}</ref><ref name="pmid22000844">{{cite journal |vauthors=Al-Sweih NA, Khan S, Rotimi VO |title=The prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections among men with urethritis in Kuwait |journal=J Infect Public Health |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=175–9 |year=2011 |pmid=22000844 |doi=10.1016/j.jiph.2011.07.003 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20852197">{{cite journal |vauthors=Le Roux MC, Ramoncha MR, Adam A, Hoosen AA |title=Aetiological agents of urethritis in symptomatic South African men attending a family practice |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=477–81 |year=2010 |pmid=20852197 |doi=10.1258/ijsa.2010.010066 |url=}}</ref>
}}</ref><ref name="pmid22000844">{{cite journal |vauthors=Al-Sweih NA, Khan S, Rotimi VO |title=The prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections among men with urethritis in Kuwait |journal=J Infect Public Health |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=175–9 |year=2011 |pmid=22000844 |doi=10.1016/j.jiph.2011.07.003 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20852197">{{cite journal |vauthors=Le Roux MC, Ramoncha MR, Adam A, Hoosen AA |title=Aetiological agents of urethritis in symptomatic South African men attending a family practice |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=477–81 |year=2010 |pmid=20852197 |doi=10.1258/ijsa.2010.010066 |url=}}</ref>




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{{familytree | | | | | | | | B01 | | | |B01=Causes}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | B01 | | | |B01=Causes}}
{{familytree | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| }}
{{familytree | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| }}
{{familytree | | | | C01 | | | | | | C02| |C01='''Non Infectious causes<ref name="pmid15879866">{{cite journal |vauthors=Herz D, Weiser A, Collette T, Reda E, Levitt S, Franco I |title=Dysfunctional elimination syndrome as an etiology of idiopathic urethritis in childhood |journal=J. Urol. |volume=173 |issue=6 |pages=2132–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15879866 |doi=10.1097/01.ju.0000157686.28359.c7 |url=}}</ref>'''|C02='''Infectious causes<ref name="pmid20852197">{{cite journal |vauthors=Le Roux MC, Ramoncha MR, Adam A, Hoosen AA |title=Aetiological agents of urethritis in symptomatic South African men attending a family practice |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=477–81 |year=2010 |pmid=20852197 |doi=10.1258/ijsa.2010.010066 |url=}}</ref>'''}}
{{familytree | | | | C01 | | | | | | C02| |C01='''Non-infectious causes<ref name="pmid15879866">{{cite journal |vauthors=Herz D, Weiser A, Collette T, Reda E, Levitt S, Franco I |title=Dysfunctional elimination syndrome as an etiology of idiopathic urethritis in childhood |journal=J. Urol. |volume=173 |issue=6 |pages=2132–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15879866 |doi=10.1097/01.ju.0000157686.28359.c7 |url=}}</ref>'''|C02='''Infectious causes<ref name="pmid20852197">{{cite journal |vauthors=Le Roux MC, Ramoncha MR, Adam A, Hoosen AA |title=Aetiological agents of urethritis in symptomatic South African men attending a family practice |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=477–81 |year=2010 |pmid=20852197 |doi=10.1258/ijsa.2010.010066 |url=}}</ref>'''}}
{{familytree | | | | |!| | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | |!| | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | D01 | | | | D02 | | D03|D01=Heavy precipitation of urinary crystals<br>Chemicals<br>Bubble bath<br>Stevens-Johnson syndrome<br>Spermicides|D02=Gonococcal Urethritis<ref name="kim">{{Cite journal
{{familytree | | | | D01 | | | | D02 | | D03|D01=Heavy precipitation of urinary crystals, <br>chemicals, <br>bubble bath, <br>[[Stevens-Johnson syndrome]], <br>spermicides|D02=Gonococcal urethritis<ref name="kim">{{Cite journal
  | author = [[Kimberly A. Workowski]] & [[Gail A. Bolan]]
  | author = [[Kimberly A. Workowski]] & [[Gail A. Bolan]]
  | title = Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015
  | title = Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015
Line 36: Line 35:
  | month = June
  | month = June
  | pmid = 26042815
  | pmid = 26042815
}}</ref>|D03=Nongonococcal Urethritis<ref>{{Cite journal
}}</ref>|D03=Non-gonococcal urethritis<ref>{{Cite journal
  | author = [[K. K. Holmes]], [[H. H. Handsfield]], [[S. P. Wang]], [[B. B. Wentworth]], [[M. Turck]], [[J. B. Anderson]] & [[E. R. Alexander]]
  | author = [[K. K. Holmes]], [[H. H. Handsfield]], [[S. P. Wang]], [[B. B. Wentworth]], [[M. Turck]], [[J. B. Anderson]] & [[E. R. Alexander]]
  | title = Etiology of nongonococcal urethritis
  | title = Etiology of nongonococcal urethritis
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}}</ref> }}
}}</ref> }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | E01|E01=Chlamydia trachomatis<br>Trichomonas vaginalis<br>Mycoplasma genitalium<br>Herpes simplex virus<br>Adenovirus<br>Ureaplasma urealyticum }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | E01|E01=''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]''<br>''[[Trichomonas vaginalis]]''<br>''[[Mycoplasma genitalium]]''<br>''[[Herpes simplex virus]]''<br>''[[Adenovirus]]''<br>''[[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]''<br>''[[Neisseria meningitidis]]''<br>''[[Haemophilus influenza]]''<br>''[[Haemophilus parainfluenzae]]''}}
{{familytree/end}}
{{familytree/end}}


===Causes by Organ System===
===Causes by Organ System===


{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" |'''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" |'''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"| '''Chemical/Poisoning'''
| bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Chemical/Poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Bath salts]], [[Bobble bath]], [[Spermicides]], [[Talcum powder]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Bath salts]], bubble bath, [[Spermicide|spermicides]], [[Baby powder|talcum powder]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
| '''Dental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Urethral catheterization]], [[Instrumentation]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Urethral catheterization]], instrumentation
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Adenovirus]], [[Candida albicans]], [[Chlamydia trachomatis]], [[Group d streptoccus]], [[Herpes simplex virus]], [[Lymphogranuloma venereum]], [[Mycoplasma genitalium]], [[Mycoplasma hominis]], [[Neisseria gonorrheae]], [[Pelvic inflammatory disease]],  [[Protozoa and protozoal conditions]],  [[Treponema pallidum]], [[Trichomonas vaginalis]], [[Ureaplasma parvum]], [[Ureaplasma urealyticum]],
| bgcolor="Beige" | ''[[Adenovirus]], [[Candida albicans]], [[Chlamydia trachomatis]], [[Group D streptococcus]], [[Herpes simplex virus]], [[Lymphogranuloma venereum]], [[Mycoplasma genitalium]], [[Mycoplasma hominis]], [[Neisseria gonorrheae]],'' [[Pelvic inflammatory disease]],  ''[[protozoa]],  [[Treponema pallidum]], [[Trichomonas vaginalis]], [[Ureaplasma parvum]], [[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]''
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic'''
| '''Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional/Metabolic'''
| '''Nutritional/Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose/Toxicity'''
| '''Overdose/Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal/Electrolyte'''
| '''Renal/Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Balanitis xerotica obliterans]], [[Reiter syndrome]], [[Stevens-Johnson syndrome]],
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Balanitis xerotica obliterans]], [[Reiter syndrome]], [[Stevens-Johnson syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Urethral trauma]],
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Urethral trauma]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Bicycle riding]], [[Diaphragm contraception]], [[Foreign body insertion]], [[Heavy precipitation of urinary crystals]], [[Physical irritation of the urethra]],  ,
| bgcolor="Beige" | Bicycle riding, diaphragm use (contraception), foreign body insertion, heavy precipitation of urinary crystals, physical irritation of the [[urethra]]
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
{{Columns-list|3|
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
*[[Adenovirus]]
*[[Adenovirus|''Adenovirus'']]
*[[Balanitis xerotica obliterans]]
*[[Balanitis xerotica obliterans]]
*[[Bath salts]]
*[[Bath salts]]
*[[Bicycle riding]]
*Bicycle riding
*[[Bobble bath]]
* Bubble bath
*[[Candida albicans]]
*[[Candida albicans|''Candida albicans'']]
*[[Chemical irritation]]
*Chemical irritation
*[[Chlamydia]]
*[[Chlamydia trachomatis|''Chlamydia trachomatis'']]
*[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]
*Diaphragm [[Birth control|contraception]]
*[[Diaphragm contraception]]
*[[Foreign body]] insertion
*[[Foreign body insertion]]
*[[Group D streptococcus|''Group D streptococcus'']]
*[[Group D streptococcus]]
*Heavy precipitation of urinary crystals
*[[Heavy precipitation of urinary crystals]]
*[[Herpes simplex virus|''Herpes simplex virus'']]
*[[Herpes simplex virus]]
*Instrumentation
*[[Instrumentation]]
*[[Lymphogranuloma venereum]]
*[[Lymphogranuloma venereum]]
*[[Mycoplasma genitalium]]
*[[Mycoplasma genitalium|''Mycoplasma genitalium'']]
*[[Mycoplasma hominis]]
*[[Mycoplasma hominis|''Mycoplasma hominis'']]
*[[Neisseria gonorrheae]]
*[[Neisseria gonorrheae|''Neisseria gonorrheae'']]
*[[Pelvic inflammatory disease]]
*[[Pelvic inflammatory disease]]
*[[Physical irritation of the urethra]]
*Physical irritation of the [[urethra]]
*[[Protozoa and protozoal conditions]]
*[[Protozoa]]
*[[Reiter syndrome]]
*[[Reiter syndrome]]
*[[Spermicides]]
*[[Spermicide|Spermicides]]
*[[Stevens-johnson syndrome]]
*[[Stevens-Johnson syndrome]]
*[[Talcum powder]]
*[[Talcum powder]]
*[[Treponema pallidum]]
*[[Treponema pallidum|''Treponema pallidum'']]
*[[Trichomonas vaginalis]]
*[[Trichomonas vaginalis|''Trichomonas vaginalis'']]
*[[Ureaplasma parvum]]
*[[Ureaplasma parvum|''Ureaplasma parvum'']]
*[[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]
*[[Ureaplasma urealyticum|''Ureaplasma urealyticum'']]
*[[Urethral catheterization]]
*[[Urinary catheterization|Urethral catheterization]]
*[[Urethral trauma]]
*Urethral [[Physical trauma|trauma]]
}}
</div>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


[[Category:Needs overview]]
[[Category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Disease]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Inflammations]]
[[Category:Up-To-Date]]
[[Category:Infectious disease]]
[[Category:Infectious disease]]
[[Category:Primary care]]
[[Category:Urology]]
 
[[Category:Nephrology]]
{{WH}}
{{WS}}

Latest revision as of 16:34, 15 August 2021

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Seyedmahdi Pahlavani, M.D. [2]

Overview

Urethritis may be caused by either infectious or non-infectious causes. Infectious causes are divided into gonorrheal and non-gonorrheal. Non-gonorrheal pathogens are the most common cause of urethritis; Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common among them.

Causes

Urethritis may be caused by either infectious or non-infectious causes. Infectious causes are divided into gonococcal and non-gonococcal. Non-gonorrheal pathogens are the most common cause of urethritis; Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common among them.[1][2][3]


 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Causes
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Non-infectious causes[4]
 
 
 
 
 
Infectious causes[3]
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Heavy precipitation of urinary crystals,
chemicals,
bubble bath,
Stevens-Johnson syndrome,
spermicides
 
 
 
Gonococcal urethritis[1]
 
Non-gonococcal urethritis[5][6][7]
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chlamydia trachomatis
Trichomonas vaginalis
Mycoplasma genitalium
Herpes simplex virus
Adenovirus
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Neisseria meningitidis
Haemophilus influenza
Haemophilus parainfluenzae

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular No underlying causes
Chemical/Poisoning Bath salts, bubble bath, spermicides, talcum powder
Dental No underlying causes
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect No underlying causes
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine No underlying causes
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic No underlying causes
Genetic No underlying causes
Hematologic No underlying causes
Iatrogenic Urethral catheterization, instrumentation
Infectious Disease Adenovirus, Candida albicans, Chlamydia trachomatis, Group D streptococcus, Herpes simplex virus, Lymphogranuloma venereum, Mycoplasma genitalium, Mycoplasma hominis, Neisseria gonorrheae, Pelvic inflammatory disease, protozoa, Treponema pallidum, Trichomonas vaginalis, Ureaplasma parvum, Ureaplasma urealyticum
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic No underlying causes
Neurologic No underlying causes
Nutritional/Metabolic No underlying causes
Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic No underlying causes
Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose/Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal/Electrolyte No underlying causes
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy Balanitis xerotica obliterans, Reiter syndrome, Stevens-Johnson syndrome
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma Urethral trauma
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Bicycle riding, diaphragm use (contraception), foreign body insertion, heavy precipitation of urinary crystals, physical irritation of the urethra

Causes in Alphabetical Order

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Kimberly A. Workowski & Gail A. Bolan (2015). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. PMID 26042815. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ Al-Sweih NA, Khan S, Rotimi VO (2011). "The prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections among men with urethritis in Kuwait". J Infect Public Health. 4 (4): 175–9. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2011.07.003. PMID 22000844.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Le Roux MC, Ramoncha MR, Adam A, Hoosen AA (2010). "Aetiological agents of urethritis in symptomatic South African men attending a family practice". Int J STD AIDS. 21 (7): 477–81. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2010.010066. PMID 20852197.
  4. ↑ Herz D, Weiser A, Collette T, Reda E, Levitt S, Franco I (2005). "Dysfunctional elimination syndrome as an etiology of idiopathic urethritis in childhood". J. Urol. 173 (6): 2132–7. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000157686.28359.c7. PMID 15879866.
  5. ↑ K. K. Holmes, H. H. Handsfield, S. P. Wang, B. B. Wentworth, M. Turck, J. B. Anderson & E. R. Alexander (1975). "Etiology of nongonococcal urethritis". The New England journal of medicine. 292 (23): 1199–1205. doi:10.1056/NEJM197506052922301. PMID 165407. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ David H. Martin (2008). "Nongonococcal urethritis: new views through the prism of modern molecular microbiology". Current infectious disease reports. 10 (2): 128–132. PMID 18462587. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Michael J. Schlicht, Steven D. Lovrich, Jeffrey S. Sartin, Patricia Karpinsky, Steven M. Callister & William A. Agger (2004). "High prevalence of genital mycoplasmas among sexually active young adults with urethritis or cervicitis symptoms in La Crosse, Wisconsin". Journal of clinical microbiology. 42 (10): 4636–4640. doi:10.1128/JCM.42.10.4636-4640.2004. PMID 15472322. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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