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==Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==
Common risk factors in the development of diffuse esophageal spasm include age (60-80 years), obesity, mitral valve prolapse, presence of GERD, hypertension, anxiety or depression, and drinks (eg. red wine, very hot or cold liquid or fluid).


==Screening==
==Screening==
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for DES.


==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
 
If left untreated, most patients remain asymptomatic over the course of time. Very few cases report progression to Achalasia and nut cracker esophagus.


==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
===Diagnostic Criteria===
===Diagnostic Study of Choice===
The diagnostic study of choice for DES is manometry.


===History and Symptoms===
===History and Symptoms===
The hallmark of DES is esophageal dysphagia for both solids and liquids and chest pain. Symptom onset is sudden, intermittent and non-progressive in nature. Chest pain usually retrosternal in location, which is intense and squeezing in nature and may be mistaken for Angina. Difficulty swallowing, is sometimes related to specific substances like red wine, very cold or hot liquid.


===Physical Examination===
===Physical Examination===
Patients with primary diffuse esophageal spasm usually appear normal. Physical examination of patients with DES is usually remarkable for findings related to secondary diseases.


===Laboratory Findings===
===Laboratory Findings===
There are no diagnostic laboratory findings associated with DES.


===Electrocardiogram===
===Electrocardiogram===
There are no ECG findings associated with DES.


===X-ray===
===X-ray===
An x-ray of esophagus after barium swallow (esophagogram) is the next best test to support manometric diagnosis.


===Ultrasound===
===Ultrasound===
There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with DES.


===CT scan===
===CT scan===
Chest CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of DES. Findings on CT scan suggestive of DES include esophageal wall thickening.


===MRI===
===MRI===
There are no MRI findings associated with diffuse esophageal spasm.


===Other Imaging Findings===
===Other Imaging Findings===
Endoscopy may be helpful in the diagnosis of DES to exclude other esophageal lesion causing chest pain.


===Other Diagnostic Studies===
===Other Diagnostic Studies===
24-hour esophageal pH monitoring may be helpful in the diagnosis of secondary DES.


==Treatment==
==Treatment==
===Medical Therapy===
===Medical Therapy===
The mainstay of treatment for DES is medical therapy with calcium channel blockers, and/or tricyclic antidepressants.


===Surgery===
===Surgery===
The mainstay of treatment for DES is medical therapy. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with manometrically proven, symptomatic and those cases refractory to medical therapy.


===Primary Prevention===
===Primary Prevention===
There are no established measures for the primary prevention of diffuse esophageal spasm.


===Secondary Prevention===
===Secondary Prevention===
There are no secondary preventive measures available for insulinoma.


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 17:06, 4 December 2017

Diffuse esophageal spasm Microchapters

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Overview

Historical Perspective

Classification

Pathophysiology

Causes

Differentiating Diffuse esophageal spasm from other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

Risk Factors

Screening

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Diagnosis

Diagnostic study of choice

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Electrocardiogram

X-ray

Echocardiography and Ultrasound

CT scan

MRI

Other Imaging Findings

Other Diagnostic Studies

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Surgery

Primary Prevention

Secondary Prevention

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] ; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Madhu Sigdel M.B.B.S.[2]

Overview

Diffuse or Distal esophageal spasm (DES) is an uncommon esophageal motility disorder causing chest pain and/or dysphagia. DES was first described by Osgood, in 1889 in 6 patients presenting with chest pain and dysphagia. Creamer et al. (1958) made the first manometric descriptions of DES. Development of high resolution esophageal manometry in 2000 has led to classification of esophageal motility disorders. Diffuse esophageal spasm can be classified as primary or secondary based on presence or absence of other disease associated with it. The exact pathogenesis of DES is not fully understood. Current high-resolution manometric studies suggests impairment of inhibitory neurons. These inhibitory neurons use nitric oxide (NO) as neurotransmitter. Exact cause of diffuse esophageal spasm is unknown. However, may be caused by consequence of various diseases and secondary to conditions like compression of nerves within esophageal wall, inflammation of the esophagus, stricture, GERD, psychological conditions like anxiety or depression. Diffuse esophageal spasm must be differentiated from other diseases that cause dysphagia, chest pain and weight loss such as angina, reflux esophagitis, esophageal carcinoma, systemic sclerosis, nutcracker esophagus, hypertensive LES, esophageal web/stricture, pseudoachalasia, stroke, esophageal candidiasis, Chagas disease etc. Common risk factors in the development of Diffuse Esophageal Spasm include: Age (60-80 years), obesity, mitral valve prolapse, presence of GERD, Hypertension, anxiety or depression, and drinks (eg. red wine, very hot or cold liquid or fluid). If left untreated, most patients are symptom free over the course of time. Very few cases report of progression to achalasia and nut cracker esophagus. The diagnostic study of choice for DES is manometry. An x-ray of esophagus after barium swallow (esophagogram) is the next best test to support manometric diagnosis. The mainstay of treatment for DES is medical therapy with calcium channel blockers, and/or tricyclic antidepressants.

Historical Perspective

Esophagus was described by Vasalius in 1543. Diffuse esophageal spasm was first described by Osgood in 1889 in 6 patients presenting with chest pain and dysphagia. Development of high resolution esophageal manometry in 2000 has led to classification of esophageal motility disorders.

Classification

Diffuse esophageal spasm can be classified as primary or secondary based on its association with other diseases.

Pathophysiology

The exact pathogenesis of DES is not fully understood. Current high-resolution manometric studies suggests impairment of inhibitory neurons. These inhibitory neurons use nitric oxide (NO) as neurotransmitter.

Causes

Exact cause of diffuse esophageal spasm is unknown. However, may be caused by consequence of various diseases and secondary to conditions like compression of nerves within esophageal wall, inflammation of the esophagus, strictures, GERD, and psychological conditions like anxiety or depression.

Differentiating Diffuse esophageal spasm from Other Diseases

Diffuse esophageal spasm must be differentiated from other diseases that cause dysphagia, chest pain and weight loss such as angina, reflux esophagitis, esophageal carcinoma, systemic sclerosis, nutcracker esophagus, hypertensive LES, esophageal web/stricture, pseudoachalasia, stroke, esophageal candidiasis and Chagas disease etc.

Epidemiology and Demographics

Diffuse esophageal spasm is relatively uncommon disease with incidence of 1 per 100,000 in the USA. DES affects all age groups. There is no racial predilection to DES.

Risk Factors

Common risk factors in the development of diffuse esophageal spasm include age (60-80 years), obesity, mitral valve prolapse, presence of GERD, hypertension, anxiety or depression, and drinks (eg. red wine, very hot or cold liquid or fluid).

Screening

There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for DES.

Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

If left untreated, most patients remain asymptomatic over the course of time. Very few cases report progression to Achalasia and nut cracker esophagus.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

The diagnostic study of choice for DES is manometry.

History and Symptoms

The hallmark of DES is esophageal dysphagia for both solids and liquids and chest pain. Symptom onset is sudden, intermittent and non-progressive in nature. Chest pain usually retrosternal in location, which is intense and squeezing in nature and may be mistaken for Angina. Difficulty swallowing, is sometimes related to specific substances like red wine, very cold or hot liquid.

Physical Examination

Patients with primary diffuse esophageal spasm usually appear normal. Physical examination of patients with DES is usually remarkable for findings related to secondary diseases.

Laboratory Findings

There are no diagnostic laboratory findings associated with DES.

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with DES.

X-ray

An x-ray of esophagus after barium swallow (esophagogram) is the next best test to support manometric diagnosis.

Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with DES.

CT scan

Chest CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of DES. Findings on CT scan suggestive of DES include esophageal wall thickening.

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with diffuse esophageal spasm.

Other Imaging Findings

Endoscopy may be helpful in the diagnosis of DES to exclude other esophageal lesion causing chest pain.

Other Diagnostic Studies

24-hour esophageal pH monitoring may be helpful in the diagnosis of secondary DES.

Treatment

Medical Therapy

The mainstay of treatment for DES is medical therapy with calcium channel blockers, and/or tricyclic antidepressants.

Surgery

The mainstay of treatment for DES is medical therapy. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with manometrically proven, symptomatic and those cases refractory to medical therapy.

Primary Prevention

There are no established measures for the primary prevention of diffuse esophageal spasm.

Secondary Prevention

There are no secondary preventive measures available for insulinoma.

References


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