Endometritis: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 07:54, 5 October 2020

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Shakiba Hassanzadeh, MD [2]

Synonyms and keywords: acute endometritis, chronic endometritis, postpartum endometritis, puerperal endometritis, pyometra

Overview

Endometritis refers to inflammation of the endometrium,^[1] the inner lining of the uterus. Pathologists have traditionally classified endometritis as either acute or chronic: acute endometritis is characterized by the presence of microabscesses or neutrophils within the endometrial glands, while chronic endometritis is distinguished by variable numbers of plasma cells within the endometrial stroma. The most common cause of endometritis is infection. Symptoms include lower abdominal pain, fever and abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge. Caesarean section, prolonged rupture of membranes and long labor with multiple vaginal examinations are important risk factors. Treatment is usually with broad-spectrum antibiotics.

The term "endomyometritis" is sometimes used to specify inflammation of the endometrium and the myometrium.^[2]

Acute Endometritis

Acute Endometritis is characterized by infection. The organisms isolated are most often infection are believed to be because of compromised abortions, delivery, medical instrumentation, and retention of placental fragments. Histologically, neutrophilic infiltration of the endometrial tissue is present during acute endometritis. The clinical presentation is typically high fever and purulent vaginal discharge. Menstruation after acute endometritis is excessive and in uncomplicated cases can resolve after 2 weeks of clindamycin and gentamicin IV antibiotic treatment.

In certain populations, it has been associated with Mycoplasma genitalium.^[3]

Chronic Endometritis

Chronic Endometritis is characterized by the presence of plasma cells in the stroma. Lymphocytes, eosinophils, and even lymphoid follicles may be seen, but in the absence of plasma cells, are not enough to warrant a histologic diagnosis. It may be seen in up to 10% of all endometrial biopsies performed for irregular bleeding. The most common organisms are Chlamydia trachomatis (chlamydia), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (gonorrhea), Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus), Mycoplasma hominis, tuberculosis, and various viruses. Most of these agents are capable of causing chronic pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Patients suffering from chronic endometritis may have an underlying cancer of the cervix or endometrium (although infectious etiology is more common). Antibiotic therapy is curative in most cases (depending on underlying etiology), with fairly rapid alleviation of symptoms after only 2 to 3 days.

Chronic granulomatous endometritis is usually caused by tuberculous. The granulomas are small, sparse, and without caseation. The granulomas take up to 2 weeks to develop and since the endometrium is shed every 4 weeks, the granulomas are poorly formed.

In human medicine, pyometra (also a veterinary condition of significance) is regarded as a form of chronic endometritis seen in elderly women causing stenosis of the cervical os and accumulation of discharges and infection. Symptom in chronic endometritis is blood stained discharge but in pyometra the patient complaints of lower abdominal pain.

Pyometra

Pyometra describes an accumulation of pus in the uterine cavity. In order for pyometra to develop, there must be both an infection and blockage of cervix. Signs and symptoms include lower abdominal pain (suprapubic), rigors, fever, and the discharge of pus on introduction of a sound into the uterus. Pyometra is treated with antibiotics, according to culture and sensitivity.

Overview

Classification

Endometritis may be classified according to histopathology into two subtypes:^[4]

Acute endometritis
Chronic endometritis (CE)

Pyometra

Pathophysiology

Postpartum endometritis

Postpartum endometritis is caused by bacteria (vaginal microflora) ascending from the lower genital tract during labor.^[5]

These bacteria colonize the cervix and then ascend into the lower part of the uterus and enter the amniotic fluid.
The amniotic membranes are weakened and ruptured due to the collagenases and proteases that are produced.

Artificial or spontaneous rupture of membranes may also happen without bacterial colonization.^[5]

In these cases bacteria may colonize the decidua and amniotic fluid.
An amnionitis without deciduitis is caused when bacteria do not colonize the decidua. Chorioamnionitis occurs but the uterus is not infected.
Deciduitis may result in the infection of the myometrium that may not be diagnosed initially. However, it may not lead to postpartum endometritis with antibiotic treatment after delivery.

Chronic Endometritis

In the normal endometrium, B-cells are mostly seen in the basal layer.^[6]

The basal layer is the layer that remains across the menstrual cycle.
In the lymphocyte aggregates, B-cells are the central cells that are surrounded by CD8 T-cells and macrophages.

In chronic endometritis (CE):^[7]

B-cells are seen in the endometrial functional and basal layers.^[8]^[9]
- The endometrial functional layer is the layer that sheds in menstruation.
- These increased numbers of B-cells in the endometrial stroma invade into the gland lumina.
Decreased CD16negative CD56positive/bright natural killer cells and increased T-cells in the secretory phase of the endometrium.^[10]
Abnormal expression of some adhesion molecules and chemokines in the endometrial endothelial and epithelial cells.^[9]
- CD62E, CXCL1, and CXCL13 (these are involved in B-cell extravasation and migration).
IL-6 is increased in the menstrual flow.^[11]
- IL-6 is a differentiation factor of mature B-cells.
Increase in IL-1b and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a.^[11]
- TNF-a increases estrogen biosynthesis in the endometrial glandular cells. ^[12]
  - May be associated with endometrial micropolyposis which is seen in the hysteroscopy of patients with CE.^[13]^[14]
Increased immunoglobulin subclasses (IgM, IgA1, IgA2, IgG1, and IgG2), especially IgG2.^[15]
- Negatively affect embryo implantation.
- Rarely cause systemic inflammation or affect leukocyte counts, CRP, or cause fever.^[16]^[17]
Delayed differentiation of endometrium in the mid-secretory phase.
- One-third of biopsies from infertile patients with CE have 'out-of-phase' morphology.^[16]
- Pseudostratification and mitotic nuclei in the glandular and surface epithelial cells.
In the secretory phase, the expression of the followings are upregulated:^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]
- Antiapoptotic genes (BCL2 and BAX)
- Nuclear marker associated with proliferation (Ki-67)
- Ovarian steroid receptors (estrogen receptor-a, and -b, progesterone receptor-A, and -B)
The expression of the followings are downregulated:^[18]^[21]
- Genes associated with embryo receptivity (IL11, CCL4, IGF1, and CASP8)
- Decidualization (PRL and IGFBP1)

Histopathology

Acute Endometritis

The histopathologic findings in acute endometritis include:^[4]

Microabscess formation
Neutrophil invasion in:
- Endometrial superficial epithelium and gland lumina
- Uterine cavity

Chronic Endometritis

The histopathologic findings in chronic endometritis (CE) include:^[4]^[22]

Infiltration of plasmacytes in endometrial stroma
Increase in stromal cell density
Dissociated maturation between epithelium and stroma
Edema of endometrial superficial stroma


Histopathology
Acute Endometritis	Chronic Endometritis
The histopathologic findings in acute endometritis include:^[4] Microabscess formation Neutrophil invasion in: Endometrial superficial epithelium and gland lumina Uterine cavity	The histopathologic findings in chronic endometritis (CE) include:^[4]^[22] Infiltration of plasmacytes in endometrial stroma Increase in stromal cell density Dissociated maturation between epithelium and stroma Edema of endometrial superficial stroma

Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes a subtype of chronic endometritis (CE) (chronic granulomatous endometritis) in some developing countries. Histopathologically, chronic granulomatous endometritis has caseating granuloma surrounded by infiltrates of lymphocytes which include endometrial stromal plasmacytes (ESPCs).^[23]

Causes

Postpartum endometritis is caused by bacteria ascending from the lower genital tract into the cervix during labor. These bacteria that are the vaginal microflora include:^[5]

Alpha hemolytic streptococci
Corynebacterium
Diphtheroids
E.coli
Enterobacter agglomerans, E cloacae, E aerogenes
Fusobacterium necrophorum
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Lactobacillus crispatus, L casei, L jansei
Mycoplasma genitalia, M hominis
Nondescript streptococci
Prevotella bivia, P melaninogenicus
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Ureaplasma urealyticum

Acute endometritis is mostly caused by Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae^[24].

The most common cause of chronic endometritis (CE) is an infection with microorganisms, including:^[25]^[26]^[27]

Bacteria:
- Escherichia coli
- Streptococcus species
- Staphylococcus species
- Enterococcus faecalis
- Mycoplasma or ureaplasma species:
- Proteus species
- Klebsiella pneumoniae
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Gardnerella vaginalis
- Corynebacterium
Yeats:
- Candida species
- Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes a subtype of chronic endometritis (CE) (chronic granulomatous endometritis) in some developing countries.^[23]

The rate of infections with Chlamydia trachomatis (2%–7%) and Neisseria gonorrhea (0%–8%) in chronic endometritis (CE) are very low. ^[25]^[28]^[29]

The association of viral infections as causes of chronic endometritis (CE) is still unclear.^[7]

Differentiating Endometritis from other Diseases

Puerperal endometritis must be differentiated from:^[30]

Epidemiology

Puerperal Endometritis

The prevalence of endometritis is 1% to 2% of births and 27% of cesarean births.^[31]^[32]

Chronic Endometritis

The prevalence of chronic endometritis (CE) is about 10% to 11% on biopsies performed from hysterectomies of patients with gynecologic conditions.^[16]^[29]

In a study, the prevalence of CE has been reported to be 15% in infertile women with in vitro fertilization (IVF) and 42% in women with recurrent implantation failure (RIF).^[33]

The prevalence of CE has been reported to be 57.8% in women with three or more recurrent pregnancy losses (RPLs).^[34]

In one study, the prevalence of CE has been reported to be 14% and 27% in patients with RIF or RPL, respectively.^[35]

Risk Factors

Risk factors associated with puerperal endometritis include:^[31]^[32]^[36]^[5]

Cesarean birth
Surgical or instrumental birth
Chorioamnionitis
Prolonged rupture of membranes
Retained placental fragments
Postpartum hemorrhage
Frequent vaginal examinations
Colonization with group B Streptococcus

Risk factors that have been reported to be associated with chronic endometritis (CE) include:^[16]^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45]

Intrauterine contraceptive devices (continuous use)
Prolonged menstruation
Atypical uterine bleeding
Fallopian tube obstruction
Multiparity
Abortion
Bacterial vaginosis
Endometrial hyperplasia
Submucosal fibroids
Endometriosis
Endometrial osseous metaplasia
Tuberculosis

Screening

Routine antepartum screening for GBS infection and treatment of genital tract infections are important in preventing puerperal genital tract infection.^[46]

There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for chronic endometritis (CE). However, it has been suggested that hysteroscopy may have the potential to be a screening tool for CE.^[7]

Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

Natural History

Studies have suggested that patients with chronic endometritis (CE) may develop:^[47]^[33]^[34]

Infertility
Recurrent implantation failure (RIF)
Recurrent pregnancy losses (RPLs)

Complications

Complications of puerperal endometritis after cesarean birth may include:^[32]^[48]

Common complications of chronic endometritis (CE) include:^[49]^[50]^[51]^[47]^[52]

Infertility
Recurrent miscarriages
Recurrent implantation failure following in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) treatment
Obstetric complications
Neonatal complications
Chronic deciduitis

Prognosis

A study showed that after antibiotic treatment of patients with CE and recurrent pregnancy losses (RPLs), the pre-pregnancy live birth rate increased from 7% (before treatment) to 56% (after treatment).^[50]

Another study showed that after antibiotic treatment of patients with CE, the implantation rate and pregnancy rate increased from 4.9% and 7.4% (before treatment) to 18.6% and 29.3% (after treatment), respectively.^[53]

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

The histological finding of acute endometritis includes a large number of neutrophils in the endometrial stroma.^[54]

The diagnosis of chronic endometritis (CE) is made with endometrial biopsy and the histological diagnostic criterion is plasma cells in the endometrial stroma.^[16]^[55]

History and Symptoms

Symptoms of acute endometritis may include:^[56]^[57]

Chronic endometritis (CE) is mostly asymptomatic but may have vague symptoms including:^[56]^[58]^[59]

Physical Examination

Clinical findings found on physical examination in puerperal endometritis may include:^[57]

Fever
Tachycardia
Uterine tenderness
Pelvic pain on bimanual examination
Lochia
Subinvolution of uterus

Laboratory Findings

Laboratory tests in puerperal endometritis include:^[46]^[30]

There is insufficient evidence that suggests obtaining endometrial or cervical cultures in puerperal endometritis due to contamination while obtaining an endometrial culture.^[60]^[61]

Laboratory findings in acute endometritis may include:^[62]

Leukocytosis
Elevated serum inflammatory markers

Staining used in histological detection of chronic endometritis (CE) include:

Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)^[50]^[55]
Immunohistochemical (IHC) stain that detects CD38 and CD138 plasma cell-specific surface antigens:
- Confirms the presence of plasma cells in the endometrium.^[63]
- IHC staining for CD138 has higher sensitivity for diagnosing CE compared to H&E staining (56% vs. 13%).^[64]

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with endometritis.

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with endometritis. However, a chest x-ray should be performed if there is suspicion of a respiratory disorder.^[30]

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography findings associated with endometritis.

Ultrasound is usually not helpful in the diagnosis of endometritis. However, an ultrasound may be helpful to rule out other disorders in postpartum patients that are nonresponsive to therapy.^[65] Ultrasound and CT findings in postpartum endometritis may include:^[65]^[66]^[67]^[68]^[69]

Normal uterus

or

Nonspecific findings due to retained products of conception:
- Intrauterine fluid (with or without internal echoes due to blood, gas, or retained products of pregnancy)
- Thickened heterogeneous endometrium

CT scan

Ultrasound and CT findings in postpartum endometritis may include:^[65]^[66]^[67]^[68]^[69]

Normal uterus

or

Nonspecific findings due to retained products of conception:
- Intrauterine fluid (with or without internal echoes due to blood, gas, or retained products of pregnancy)
- Thickened heterogeneous endometrium

Compared to ultrasound, CT scan is more helpful in identifying the inflammation of the soft tissues and pelvic abscesses.^[70]

MRI

There are no specific MRI findings associated with endometritis. However, MRI may be helpful if there is suspicion of septic pelvic thrombophlebitis.^[60]

Other Imaging Findings

Fluid hysteroscopy is helpful in diagnosing chronic endometritis (CE) and the findings include:^[14]^[25]

Edema of the stroma
Micropolyps
Focal or diffuse hyperemia

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Patients with postpartum endometritis are recommended to be treated with either:^[71]

Clindamycin plus gentamicin (600 mg/every 6 h/oral or 4.5 g/every 24 h/IM)
Amoxicillin–clavulanic acid (875 mg/every 12 h /oral)
Cefotetan (2 g/every 8 h/IM)
Meropenem or imipenem–cilastatin (500 mg/every 8 h/IM)
Amoxicillin plus metronidazole (500 mg/every 8 h/oral)

Patients with chronic endometritis (CE) are treated with:

First-line therapy:
- Doxycycline 100 mg/twice per day/14 days^[49]
Second-line therapy:
- Combination of ofloxacin/400 mg/twice per day/14 days and metronidazole/500 mg/twice per day /14 days^[50]

Surgery

Surgery may be indicated if there is drainable fluid collection due to infection.^[60]

Primary Prevention

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend antimicrobial prophylaxis 60 minutes prior to incision of cesarean birth.^[72]^[73]^[74]

A Conchrane study showed that antimicrobial prophylaxis decreases uterine and wound infections.^[73]

Some of the measures that should be considered in order to reduce genital tract infections include:^[46]^[73]^[75]^[76]

Routine antepartum screening and treatment of GBS and infections
Handwashing
Aseptic procedure
Decrease in vaginal examinations
Limiting use of invasive procedures
Limiting episiotomies
Synthetic suture use
Decrease in cesarean births
Rapid repair of lacerations
Standard suture techniques
Prophylaxis with antibiotics in anal sphincter injuries

Secondary Prevention

There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of endometritis.

References

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↑ Peipert JF, Montagno AB, Cooper AS, Sung CJ (1997). "Bacterial vaginosis as a risk factor for upper genital tract infection". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 177 (5): 1184–7. doi:10.1016/s0002-9378(97)70038-3. PMID 9396917.
↑ Jindal UN, Verma S, Bala Y (2012). "Favorable infertility outcomes following anti-tubercular treatment prescribed on the sole basis of a positive polymerase chain reaction test for endometrial tuberculosis". Hum Reprod. 27 (5): 1368–74. doi:10.1093/humrep/des076. PMID 22419745.
↑ Degani S, Gonen R, de Vries K, Sharf M (1983). "Endometrial ossification associated with repeated abortions". Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 62 (3): 281–2. doi:10.3109/00016348309155810. PMID 6414236.
↑ ^46.0 ^46.1 ^46.2 Maharaj D (2007). "Puerperal pyrexia: a review. Part I." Obstet Gynecol Surv. 62 (6): 393–9. doi:10.1097/01.ogx.0000265998.40912.5e. PMID 17511893.
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↑ Soper DE (2012). "Early recognition of serious infections in obstetrics and gynecology". Clin Obstet Gynecol. 55 (4): 858–63. doi:10.1097/GRF.0b013e3182730f43. PMID 23090454.
↑ ^49.0 ^49.1 Johnston-MacAnanny EB, Hartnett J, Engmann LL, Nulsen JC, Sanders MM, Benadiva CA (2010). "Chronic endometritis is a frequent finding in women with recurrent implantation failure after in vitro fertilization". Fertil Steril. 93 (2): 437–41. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.131. PMID 19217098.
↑ ^50.0 ^50.1 ^50.2 ^50.3 McQueen DB, Bernardi LA, Stephenson MD (2014). "Chronic endometritis in women with recurrent early pregnancy loss and/or fetal demise". Fertil Steril. 101 (4): 1026–30. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.12.031. PMID 24462055.
↑ Kitaya K (2011). "Prevalence of chronic endometritis in recurrent miscarriages". Fertil Steril. 95 (3): 1156–8. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.09.061. PMID 21030015.
↑ Ghidini A, Salafia CM (2005). "Histologic placental lesions in women with recurrent preterm delivery". Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 84 (6): 547–50. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2005.00694.x. PMID 15901265.
↑ Yang R, Du X, Wang Y, Song X, Yang Y, Qiao J (2014). "The hysteroscopy and histological diagnosis and treatment value of chronic endometritis in recurrent implantation failure patients". Arch Gynecol Obstet. 289 (6): 1363–9. doi:10.1007/s00404-013-3131-2. PMID 24395012.
↑ Eckert LO, Hawes SE, Wölner-Hanssen PK, Kiviat NB, Wasserheit JN, Paavonen JA; et al. (2002). "Endometritis: the clinical-pathologic syndrome". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 186 (4): 690–5. doi:10.1067/mob.2002.121728. PMID 11967492.
↑ ^55.0 ^55.1 Kasius JC, Fatemi HM, Bourgain C, Sie-Go DM, Eijkemans RJ, Fauser BC; et al. (2011). "The impact of chronic endometritis on reproductive outcome". Fertil Steril. 96 (6): 1451–6. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.09.039. PMID 22019126.
↑ ^56.0 ^56.1 Michels TC (1995). "Chronic endometritis". Am Fam Physician. 52 (1): 217–22. PMID 7604765.
↑ ^57.0 ^57.1 King, Tekoa (2015). Varney's midwifery. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1-284-02541-5. OCLC 855888968.
↑ Rotterdam H (1978). "Chronic endometritis. A clinicopathologic study". Pathol Annu. 13 Pt 2: 209–31. PMID 748840.
↑ Yörükoğlu K, Kuyucouğlu F (1998). "Chronic nonspecific endometritis". Gen Diagn Pathol. 143 (5–6): 287–90. PMID 9653909.
↑ ^60.0 ^60.1 ^60.2 Karsnitz DB (2013). "Puerperal infections of the genital tract: a clinical review". J Midwifery Womens Health. 58 (6): 632–42. doi:10.1111/jmwh.12119. PMID 24406036.
↑ Maharaj D (2007). "Puerperal Pyrexia: a review. Part II". Obstet Gynecol Surv. 62 (6): 400–6. doi:10.1097/01.ogx.0000266063.84571.fb. PMID 17511894.
↑ Kimura F, Takebayashi A, Ishida M, Nakamura A, Kitazawa J, Morimune A; et al. (2019). "Review: Chronic endometritis and its effect on reproduction". J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 45 (5): 951–960. doi:10.1111/jog.13937. PMID 30843321.
↑ Bayer-Garner IB, Nickell JA, Korourian S (2004). "Routine syndecan-1 immunohistochemistry aids in the diagnosis of chronic endometritis". Arch Pathol Lab Med. 128 (9): 1000–3. doi:10.1043/1543-2165(2004)128<1000:RSIAIT>2.0.CO;2. PMID 15335255.
↑ McQueen DB, Perfetto CO, Hazard FK, Lathi RB (2015). "Pregnancy outcomes in women with chronic endometritis and recurrent pregnancy loss". Fertil Steril. 104 (4): 927–931. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.06.044. PMID 26207958.
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↑ Bennett GL, Slywotzky CM, Giovanniello G (2002). "Gynecologic causes of acute pelvic pain: spectrum of CT findings". Radiographics. 22 (4): 785–801. doi:10.1148/radiographics.22.4.g02jl18785. PMID 12110710.
↑ Meaney-Delman D, Bartlett LA, Gravett MG, Jamieson DJ (2015). "Oral and intramuscular treatment options for early postpartum endometritis in low-resource settings: a systematic review". Obstet Gynecol. 125 (4): 789–800. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000000732. PMID 25751198.
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[1] Template:DorlandsDict

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 __NOTOC__
 {{CMG}} {{AE}} {{SHA}}
@@ Line 10: / Line 11: @@
 The term "endomyometritis" is sometimes used to specify inflammation of the endometrium and the [[myometrium]].<ref name="isbn0-7817-5532-8">{{cite book |author=Hubert Guedj; Baggish, Michael S.; Valle, Rafael Heliodoro |title=Hysteroscopy: visual perspectives of uterine anatomy, physiology, and pathology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2007 |pages=488 |isbn=0-7817-5532-8 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
-== Acute Endometritis ==
+==Acute Endometritis==
 Acute Endometritis is characterized by infection. The organisms isolated are most often infection are believed to be because of compromised abortions, delivery, medical instrumentation, and retention of placental fragments. Histologically, neutrophilic infiltration of the endometrial tissue is present during acute endometritis. The clinical presentation is typically high fever and purulent vaginal discharge. Menstruation after acute endometritis is excessive and in uncomplicated cases can resolve after 2 weeks of [[clindamycin]] and [[gentamicin]] [[intravenous|IV antibiotic treatment]].
 In certain populations, it has been associated with ''[[Mycoplasma genitalium]]''.<ref name="pmid11888591">{{cite journal |author=Cohen CR, Manhart LE, Bukusi EA, ''et al.'' |title=Association between Mycoplasma genitalium and acute endometritis |journal=Lancet |volume=359 |issue=9308 |pages=765–6 |year=2002 |month=March |pmid=11888591 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07848-0 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140-6736(02)07848-0}}</ref>
-== Chronic Endometritis ==
+==Chronic Endometritis==
 Chronic Endometritis is characterized by the presence of [[plasma cells]] in the stroma. Lymphocytes, eosinophils, and even lymphoid follicles may be seen, but in the absence of plasma cells, are not enough to warrant a histologic diagnosis. It may be seen in up to 10% of all endometrial biopsies performed for irregular bleeding. The most common organisms are [[Chlamydia trachomatis]] ([[Chlamydia infection|chlamydia]]), [[Neisseria gonorrhoeae]] ([[gonorrhea]]), Streptococcus agalactiae ([[Group B Streptococcus]]), [[Mycoplasma hominis]], [[tuberculosis]], and various viruses. Most of these agents are capable of causing chronic [[pelvic inflammatory disease]] (PID). Patients suffering from chronic endometritis may have an underlying cancer of the cervix or endometrium (although infectious etiology is more common). Antibiotic therapy is curative in most cases (depending on underlying etiology), with fairly rapid alleviation of symptoms after only 2 to 3 days.
@@ Line 23: / Line 24: @@
 In human medicine, pyometra (also a veterinary condition of significance) is regarded as a form of chronic endometritis seen in elderly women causing stenosis of the cervical os and accumulation of discharges and infection. Symptom in chronic endometritis is blood stained discharge but in pyometra the patient complaints of lower abdominal pain.
-== Pyometra ==
+==Pyometra==
 {{main|Pyometra}}
 Pyometra describes an accumulation of pus in the uterine cavity.  In order for pyometra to develop, there must be both an infection ''and'' blockage of cervix. Signs and symptoms include lower abdominal pain (suprapubic), rigors, fever, and the discharge of pus on introduction of a sound into the uterus.
@@ Line 29: / Line 30: @@
 ==See also==
 *[[Maternal death]]
 *[[Puerperal fever]]
@@ Line 38: / Line 40: @@
 Endometritis  may be classified according to [[histopathology]] into two subtypes:<ref name="pmid2137304">{{cite journal| author=Kiviat NB, Wølner-Hanssen P, Eschenbach DA, Wasserheit JN, Paavonen JA, Bell TA | display-authors=etal| title=Endometrial histopathology in patients with culture-proved upper genital tract infection and laparoscopically diagnosed acute salpingitis. | journal=Am J Surg Pathol | year= 1990 | volume= 14 | issue= 2 | pages= 167-75 | pmid=2137304 | doi=10.1097/00000478-199002000-00008 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2137304  }} </ref>
-* [[Acute]] endometritis
+*[[Acute]] endometritis
-* [[Chronic]] endometritis (CE)
+*[[Chronic]] endometritis (CE)
 ===Pyometra===
@@ Line 46: / Line 48: @@
 ===Postpartum endometritis===
 Postpartum endometritis is caused by [[bacteria]] ([[vaginal]] [[microflora]]) ascending from the lower [[genital]] tract during [[labor]].<ref name="pmid16085035">{{cite journal| author=Faro S| title=Postpartum endometritis. | journal=Clin Perinatol | year= 2005 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 803-14 | pmid=16085035 | doi=10.1016/j.clp.2005.04.005 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16085035  }} </ref>
-* These bacteria colonize the [[cervix]] and then ascend into the lower part of the [[uterus]] and enter the [[amniotic fluid]].
-* The amniotic membranes are weakened and ruptured due to the [[collagenases]] and [[proteases]] that are produced.
+*These bacteria colonize the [[cervix]] and then ascend into the lower part of the [[uterus]] and enter the [[amniotic fluid]].
+*The amniotic membranes are weakened and ruptured due to the [[collagenases]] and [[proteases]] that are produced.
 Artificial or spontaneous rupture of membranes may also happen without [[bacterial]] colonization.<ref name="pmid16085035">{{cite journal| author=Faro S| title=Postpartum endometritis. | journal=Clin Perinatol | year= 2005 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 803-14 | pmid=16085035 | doi=10.1016/j.clp.2005.04.005 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16085035  }} </ref>
-* In these cases [[bacteria]] may colonize the [[decidua]] and [[amniotic fluid]].
-* An amnionitis without deciduitis is caused when [[bacteria]] do not colonize the [[decidua]]. [[Chorioamnionitis]] occurs but the [[uterus]] is not infected.
+*In these cases [[bacteria]] may colonize the [[decidua]] and [[amniotic fluid]].
-* Deciduitis may result in the [[infection]] of the [[myometrium]] that may not be diagnosed initially. However, it may not lead to postpartum endometritis with [[antibiotic]] treatment after [[delivery]].
+*An amnionitis without deciduitis is caused when [[bacteria]] do not colonize the [[decidua]]. [[Chorioamnionitis]] occurs but the [[uterus]] is not infected.
+*Deciduitis may result in the [[infection]] of the [[myometrium]] that may not be diagnosed initially. However, it may not lead to postpartum endometritis with [[antibiotic]] treatment after [[delivery]].
 ===Chronic Endometritis===
 In the normal [[endometrium]], [[B-cells]] are mostly seen in the basal layer.<ref name="pmid9103229">{{cite journal| author=Yeaman GR, Guyre PM, Fanger MW, Collins JE, White HD, Rathbun W | display-authors=etal| title=Unique CD8+ T cell-rich lymphoid aggregates in human uterine endometrium. | journal=J Leukoc Biol | year= 1997 | volume= 61 | issue= 4 | pages= 427-35 | pmid=9103229 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9103229  }} </ref>
-* The basal layer is the layer that remains across the menstrual cycle.
-* In the [[lymphocyte]] aggregates, [[B-cells]] are the central cells that are surrounded by [[CD8]] [[T-cells]] and [[macrophages]].
+*The basal layer is the layer that remains across the menstrual cycle.
+*In the [[lymphocyte]] aggregates, [[B-cells]] are the central cells that are surrounded by [[CD8]] [[T-cells]] and [[macrophages]].
 In chronic endometritis (CE):<ref name="pmid29960704">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Takeuchi T, Mizuta S, Matsubayashi H, Ishikawa T| title=Endometritis: new time, new concepts. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2018 | volume= 110 | issue= 3 | pages= 344-350 | pmid=29960704 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.04.012 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29960704  }} </ref>
-* [[B-cells]] are seen in the [[endometrial]] functional and basal layers.<ref name="pmid3461701">{{cite journal| author=Tabibzadeh SS, Bettica A, Gerber MA| title=Variable expression of Ia antigens in human endometrium and in chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Clin Pathol | year= 1986 | volume= 86 | issue= 2 | pages= 153-60 | pmid=3461701 | doi=10.1093/ajcp/86.2.153 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3461701  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20495539">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Aberrant expression of selectin E, CXCL1, and CXCL13 in chronic endometritis. | journal=Mod Pathol | year= 2010 | volume= 23 | issue= 8 | pages= 1136-46 | pmid=20495539 | doi=10.1038/modpathol.2010.98 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20495539  }} </ref>
-** The endometrial functional layer is the layer that sheds in [[menstruation]].
+*[[B-cells]] are seen in the [[endometrial]] functional and basal layers.<ref name="pmid3461701">{{cite journal| author=Tabibzadeh SS, Bettica A, Gerber MA| title=Variable expression of Ia antigens in human endometrium and in chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Clin Pathol | year= 1986 | volume= 86 | issue= 2 | pages= 153-60 | pmid=3461701 | doi=10.1093/ajcp/86.2.153 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3461701  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20495539">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Aberrant expression of selectin E, CXCL1, and CXCL13 in chronic endometritis. | journal=Mod Pathol | year= 2010 | volume= 23 | issue= 8 | pages= 1136-46 | pmid=20495539 | doi=10.1038/modpathol.2010.98 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20495539  }} </ref>
-** These increased numbers of B-cells in the [[endometrial]] [[stroma]] invade into the gland lumina.
+**The endometrial functional layer is the layer that sheds in [[menstruation]].
-* Decreased [[CD16]]negative [[CD56]]positive/bright [[natural killer cells]] and increased [[T-cells]] in the [[secretory phase]] of the [[endometrium]].<ref name="pmid19341383">{{cite journal| author=Matteo M, Cicinelli E, Greco P, Massenzio F, Baldini D, Falagario T | display-authors=etal| title=Abnormal pattern of lymphocyte subpopulations in the endometrium of infertile women with chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2009 | volume= 61 | issue= 5 | pages= 322-9 | pmid=19341383 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0897.2009.00698.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19341383  }} </ref>
+**These increased numbers of B-cells in the [[endometrial]] [[stroma]] invade into the gland lumina.
-* Abnormal expression of some adhesion molecules and [[chemokines]] in the [[endometrial]] [[endothelial]] and [[epithelial cells]].<ref name="pmid20495539">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Aberrant expression of selectin E, CXCL1, and CXCL13 in chronic endometritis. | journal=Mod Pathol | year= 2010 | volume= 23 | issue= 8 | pages= 1136-46 | pmid=20495539 | doi=10.1038/modpathol.2010.98 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20495539  }} </ref>
+*Decreased [[CD16]]negative [[CD56]]positive/bright [[natural killer cells]] and increased [[T-cells]] in the [[secretory phase]] of the [[endometrium]].<ref name="pmid19341383">{{cite journal| author=Matteo M, Cicinelli E, Greco P, Massenzio F, Baldini D, Falagario T | display-authors=etal| title=Abnormal pattern of lymphocyte subpopulations in the endometrium of infertile women with chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2009 | volume= 61 | issue= 5 | pages= 322-9 | pmid=19341383 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0897.2009.00698.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19341383  }} </ref>
-** CD62E, [[CXCL1]], and [[CXCL13]] (these are involved in [[B-cell]] [[extravasation]] and migration).
+*Abnormal expression of some adhesion molecules and [[chemokines]] in the [[endometrial]] [[endothelial]] and [[epithelial cells]].<ref name="pmid20495539">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Aberrant expression of selectin E, CXCL1, and CXCL13 in chronic endometritis. | journal=Mod Pathol | year= 2010 | volume= 23 | issue= 8 | pages= 1136-46 | pmid=20495539 | doi=10.1038/modpathol.2010.98 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20495539  }} </ref>
-* [[IL-6]] is increased in the [[menstrual]] flow.<ref name="pmid24314919">{{cite journal| author=Tortorella C, Piazzolla G, Matteo M, Pinto V, Tinelli R, Sabbà C | display-authors=etal| title=Interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, and tumor necrosis factor α in menstrual effluents as biomarkers of chronic endometritis. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 1 | pages= 242-7 | pmid=24314919 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.09.041 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24314919  }} </ref>
+**CD62E, [[CXCL1]], and [[CXCL13]] (these are involved in [[B-cell]] [[extravasation]] and migration).
-** [[IL-6]] is a differentiation factor of mature [[B-cells]].
+*[[IL-6]] is increased in the [[menstrual]] flow.<ref name="pmid24314919">{{cite journal| author=Tortorella C, Piazzolla G, Matteo M, Pinto V, Tinelli R, Sabbà C | display-authors=etal| title=Interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, and tumor necrosis factor α in menstrual effluents as biomarkers of chronic endometritis. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 1 | pages= 242-7 | pmid=24314919 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.09.041 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24314919  }} </ref>
-* Increase in [[IL-1]]b and [[TNF-alpha|tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a]].<ref name="pmid24314919">{{cite journal| author=Tortorella C, Piazzolla G, Matteo M, Pinto V, Tinelli R, Sabbà C | display-authors=etal| title=Interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, and tumor necrosis factor α in menstrual effluents as biomarkers of chronic endometritis. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 1 | pages= 242-7 | pmid=24314919 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.09.041 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24314919  }} </ref>
+**[[IL-6]] is a differentiation factor of mature [[B-cells]].
-** [[TNF-alpha|TNF-a]] increases estrogen biosynthesis in the endometrial [[glandular]] cells. <ref name="pmid18957495">{{cite journal| author=Salama SA, Kamel MW, Diaz-Arrastia CR, Xu X, Veenstra TD, Salih S | display-authors=etal| title=Effect of tumor necrosis factor-alpha on estrogen metabolism and endometrial cells: potential physiological and pathological relevance. | journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab | year= 2009 | volume= 94 | issue= 1 | pages= 285-93 | pmid=18957495 | doi=10.1210/jc.2008-1389 | pmc=2630861 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18957495  }} </ref>
+*Increase in [[IL-1]]b and [[TNF-alpha|tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a]].<ref name="pmid24314919">{{cite journal| author=Tortorella C, Piazzolla G, Matteo M, Pinto V, Tinelli R, Sabbà C | display-authors=etal| title=Interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, and tumor necrosis factor α in menstrual effluents as biomarkers of chronic endometritis. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 1 | pages= 242-7 | pmid=24314919 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.09.041 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24314919  }} </ref>
-*** May be associated with [[endometrial]] micropolyposis which is seen in the [[hysteroscopy]] of patients with CE.<ref name="pmid22951914">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Tada Y, Taguchi S, Funabiki M, Hayashi T, Nakamura Y| title=Local mononuclear cell infiltrates in infertile patients with endometrial macropolyps versus micropolyps. | journal=Hum Reprod | year= 2012 | volume= 27 | issue= 12 | pages= 3474-80 | pmid=22951914 | doi=10.1093/humrep/des323 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22951914  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15734762">{{cite journal| author=Cicinelli E, Resta L, Nicoletti R, Zappimbulso V, Tartagni M, Saliani N| title=Endometrial micropolyps at fluid hysteroscopy suggest the existence of chronic endometritis. | journal=Hum Reprod | year= 2005 | volume= 20 | issue= 5 | pages= 1386-9 | pmid=15734762 | doi=10.1093/humrep/deh779 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15734762  }} </ref>
+**[[TNF-alpha|TNF-a]] increases estrogen biosynthesis in the endometrial [[glandular]] cells. <ref name="pmid18957495">{{cite journal| author=Salama SA, Kamel MW, Diaz-Arrastia CR, Xu X, Veenstra TD, Salih S | display-authors=etal| title=Effect of tumor necrosis factor-alpha on estrogen metabolism and endometrial cells: potential physiological and pathological relevance. | journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab | year= 2009 | volume= 94 | issue= 1 | pages= 285-93 | pmid=18957495 | doi=10.1210/jc.2008-1389 | pmc=2630861 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18957495  }} </ref>
-* Increased [[immunoglobulin]] subclasses ([[IgM]], [[IgA]]1, [[IgA]]2, [[IgG]]1, and [[IgG]]2), especially IgG2.<ref name="pmid24898900">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Tada Y, Hayashi T, Taguchi S, Funabiki M, Nakamura Y| title=Comprehensive endometrial immunoglobulin subclass analysis in infertile women suffering from repeated implantation failure with or without chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2014 | volume= 72 | issue= 4 | pages= 386-91 | pmid=24898900 | doi=10.1111/aji.12277 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24898900  }} </ref>
+***May be associated with [[endometrial]] micropolyposis which is seen in the [[hysteroscopy]] of patients with CE.<ref name="pmid22951914">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Tada Y, Taguchi S, Funabiki M, Hayashi T, Nakamura Y| title=Local mononuclear cell infiltrates in infertile patients with endometrial macropolyps versus micropolyps. | journal=Hum Reprod | year= 2012 | volume= 27 | issue= 12 | pages= 3474-80 | pmid=22951914 | doi=10.1093/humrep/des323 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22951914  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15734762">{{cite journal| author=Cicinelli E, Resta L, Nicoletti R, Zappimbulso V, Tartagni M, Saliani N| title=Endometrial micropolyps at fluid hysteroscopy suggest the existence of chronic endometritis. | journal=Hum Reprod | year= 2005 | volume= 20 | issue= 5 | pages= 1386-9 | pmid=15734762 | doi=10.1093/humrep/deh779 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15734762  }} </ref>
-** Negatively affect [[embryo]] [[implantation]].
+*Increased [[immunoglobulin]] subclasses ([[IgM]], [[IgA]]1, [[IgA]]2, [[IgG]]1, and [[IgG]]2), especially IgG2.<ref name="pmid24898900">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Tada Y, Hayashi T, Taguchi S, Funabiki M, Nakamura Y| title=Comprehensive endometrial immunoglobulin subclass analysis in infertile women suffering from repeated implantation failure with or without chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2014 | volume= 72 | issue= 4 | pages= 386-91 | pmid=24898900 | doi=10.1111/aji.12277 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24898900  }} </ref>
-** Rarely cause systemic [[inflammation]] or affect [[leukocyte]] counts, [[CRP]], or cause [[fever]].<ref name="pmid21749546">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Immunohistochemistrical and clinicopathological characterization of chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2011 | volume= 66 | issue= 5 | pages= 410-5 | pmid=21749546 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01051.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21749546  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26952510">{{cite journal| author=Kushnir VA, Solouki S, Sarig-Meth T, Vega MG, Albertini DF, Darmon SK | display-authors=etal| title=Systemic Inflammation and Autoimmunity in Women with Chronic Endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2016 | volume= 75 | issue= 6 | pages= 672-7 | pmid=26952510 | doi=10.1111/aji.12508 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26952510  }} </ref>
+**Negatively affect [[embryo]] [[implantation]].
-* Delayed differentiation of [[endometrium]] in the mid-secretory phase.
+**Rarely cause systemic [[inflammation]] or affect [[leukocyte]] counts, [[CRP]], or cause [[fever]].<ref name="pmid21749546">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Immunohistochemistrical and clinicopathological characterization of chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2011 | volume= 66 | issue= 5 | pages= 410-5 | pmid=21749546 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01051.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21749546  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26952510">{{cite journal| author=Kushnir VA, Solouki S, Sarig-Meth T, Vega MG, Albertini DF, Darmon SK | display-authors=etal| title=Systemic Inflammation and Autoimmunity in Women with Chronic Endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2016 | volume= 75 | issue= 6 | pages= 672-7 | pmid=26952510 | doi=10.1111/aji.12508 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26952510  }} </ref>
-** One-third of [[biopsies]] from [[infertile]] patients with CE have 'out-of-phase' [[morphology]].<ref name="pmid21749546">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Immunohistochemistrical and clinicopathological characterization of chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2011 | volume= 66 | issue= 5 | pages= 410-5 | pmid=21749546 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01051.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21749546  }} </ref>
+*Delayed differentiation of [[endometrium]] in the mid-secretory phase.
-** Pseudostratification and [[mitotic]] [[nuclei]] in the [[glandular]] and surface [[epithelial cells]].
+**One-third of [[biopsies]] from [[infertile]] patients with CE have 'out-of-phase' [[morphology]].<ref name="pmid21749546">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Immunohistochemistrical and clinicopathological characterization of chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2011 | volume= 66 | issue= 5 | pages= 410-5 | pmid=21749546 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01051.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21749546  }} </ref>
-* In the [[secretory phase]], the [[expression]] of the followings are upregulated:<ref name="pmid23351011">{{cite journal| author=Di Pietro C, Cicinelli E, Guglielmino MR, Ragusa M, Farina M, Palumbo MA | display-authors=etal| title=Altered transcriptional regulation of cytokines, growth factors, and apoptotic proteins in the endometrium of infertile women with chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2013 | volume= 69 | issue= 5 | pages= 509-17 | pmid=23351011 | doi=10.1111/aji.12076 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23351011  }} </ref><ref name="pmid18686353">{{cite journal| author=Mishra K, Wadhwa N, Guleria K, Agarwal S| title=ER, PR and Ki-67 expression status in granulomatous and  chronic non-specific endometritis. | journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res | year= 2008 | volume= 34 | issue= 3 | pages= 371-8 | pmid=18686353 | doi=10.1111/j.1447-0756.2007.00700.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18686353  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2114696">{{cite journal| author=Pickartz H, Beckmann R, Fleige B, Düe W, Gerdes J, Stein H| title=Steroid receptors and proliferative activity in non-neoplastic and neoplastic endometria. | journal=Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol | year= 1990 | volume= 417 | issue= 2 | pages= 163-71 | pmid=2114696 | doi=10.1007/BF02190535 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2114696  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28259137">{{cite journal| author=Wu D, Kimura F, Zheng L, Ishida M, Niwa Y, Hirata K | display-authors=etal| title=Chronic endometritis modifies decidualization in human endometrial stromal cells. | journal=Reprod Biol Endocrinol | year= 2017 | volume= 15 | issue= 1 | pages= 16 | pmid=28259137 | doi=10.1186/s12958-017-0233-x | pmc=5336610 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28259137  }} </ref>
+**Pseudostratification and [[mitotic]] [[nuclei]] in the [[glandular]] and surface [[epithelial cells]].
-** Antiapoptotic [[genes]] (BCL2 and [[BAX]])
+*In the [[secretory phase]], the [[expression]] of the followings are upregulated:<ref name="pmid23351011">{{cite journal| author=Di Pietro C, Cicinelli E, Guglielmino MR, Ragusa M, Farina M, Palumbo MA | display-authors=etal| title=Altered transcriptional regulation of cytokines, growth factors, and apoptotic proteins in the endometrium of infertile women with chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2013 | volume= 69 | issue= 5 | pages= 509-17 | pmid=23351011 | doi=10.1111/aji.12076 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23351011  }} </ref><ref name="pmid18686353">{{cite journal| author=Mishra K, Wadhwa N, Guleria K, Agarwal S| title=ER, PR and Ki-67 expression status in granulomatous and  chronic non-specific endometritis. | journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res | year= 2008 | volume= 34 | issue= 3 | pages= 371-8 | pmid=18686353 | doi=10.1111/j.1447-0756.2007.00700.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18686353  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2114696">{{cite journal| author=Pickartz H, Beckmann R, Fleige B, Düe W, Gerdes J, Stein H| title=Steroid receptors and proliferative activity in non-neoplastic and neoplastic endometria. | journal=Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol | year= 1990 | volume= 417 | issue= 2 | pages= 163-71 | pmid=2114696 | doi=10.1007/BF02190535 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2114696  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28259137">{{cite journal| author=Wu D, Kimura F, Zheng L, Ishida M, Niwa Y, Hirata K | display-authors=etal| title=Chronic endometritis modifies decidualization in human endometrial stromal cells. | journal=Reprod Biol Endocrinol | year= 2017 | volume= 15 | issue= 1 | pages= 16 | pmid=28259137 | doi=10.1186/s12958-017-0233-x | pmc=5336610 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28259137  }} </ref>
-** Nuclear marker associated with [[proliferation]] ([[Ki-67]])
+**Antiapoptotic [[genes]] (BCL2 and [[BAX]])
-** [[Ovarian]] [[steroid]] receptors ([[estrogen receptor]]-a, and -b, [[progesterone receptor]]-A, and -B)
+**Nuclear marker associated with [[proliferation]] ([[Ki-67]])
-* The [[expression]] of the followings are downregulated:<ref name="pmid23351011">{{cite journal| author=Di Pietro C, Cicinelli E, Guglielmino MR, Ragusa M, Farina M, Palumbo MA | display-authors=etal| title=Altered transcriptional regulation of cytokines, growth factors, and apoptotic proteins in the endometrium of infertile women with chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2013 | volume= 69 | issue= 5 | pages= 509-17 | pmid=23351011 | doi=10.1111/aji.12076 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23351011  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28259137">{{cite journal| author=Wu D, Kimura F, Zheng L, Ishida M, Niwa Y, Hirata K | display-authors=etal| title=Chronic endometritis modifies decidualization in human endometrial stromal cells. | journal=Reprod Biol Endocrinol | year= 2017 | volume= 15 | issue= 1 | pages= 16 | pmid=28259137 | doi=10.1186/s12958-017-0233-x | pmc=5336610 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28259137  }} </ref>
+**[[Ovarian]] [[steroid]] receptors ([[estrogen receptor]]-a, and -b, [[progesterone receptor]]-A, and -B)
-** [[Genes]]  associated with [[embryo]] receptivity (IL11, [[CCL4]], [[IGF1]], and [[CASP8]])
+*The [[expression]] of the followings are downregulated:<ref name="pmid23351011">{{cite journal| author=Di Pietro C, Cicinelli E, Guglielmino MR, Ragusa M, Farina M, Palumbo MA | display-authors=etal| title=Altered transcriptional regulation of cytokines, growth factors, and apoptotic proteins in the endometrium of infertile women with chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2013 | volume= 69 | issue= 5 | pages= 509-17 | pmid=23351011 | doi=10.1111/aji.12076 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23351011  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28259137">{{cite journal| author=Wu D, Kimura F, Zheng L, Ishida M, Niwa Y, Hirata K | display-authors=etal| title=Chronic endometritis modifies decidualization in human endometrial stromal cells. | journal=Reprod Biol Endocrinol | year= 2017 | volume= 15 | issue= 1 | pages= 16 | pmid=28259137 | doi=10.1186/s12958-017-0233-x | pmc=5336610 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28259137  }} </ref>
-** [[Decidualization]] (PRL and [[IGFBP1]])
+**[[Genes]]  associated with [[embryo]] receptivity (IL11, [[CCL4]], [[IGF1]], and [[CASP8]])
+**[[Decidualization]] (PRL and [[IGFBP1]])
 ===Histopathology===
@@ Line 89: / Line 95: @@
 The [[histopathologic]] findings in [[acute]] endometritis include:<ref name="pmid2137304">{{cite journal| author=Kiviat NB, Wølner-Hanssen P, Eschenbach DA, Wasserheit JN, Paavonen JA, Bell TA | display-authors=etal| title=Endometrial histopathology in patients with culture-proved upper genital tract infection and laparoscopically diagnosed acute salpingitis. | journal=Am J Surg Pathol | year= 1990 | volume= 14 | issue= 2 | pages= 167-75 | pmid=2137304 | doi=10.1097/00000478-199002000-00008 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2137304  }} </ref>
-* Microabscess formation
-* [[Neutrophil]] invasion in:
+*Microabscess formation
-** [[Endometrial]] superficial [[epithelium]] and [[gland]] lumina
+*[[Neutrophil]] invasion in:
-** [[Uterine]] cavity
+**[[Endometrial]] superficial [[epithelium]] and [[gland]] lumina
+**[[Uterine]] cavity
 '''Chronic Endometritis'''
 The [[histopathologic]] findings in [[chronic]] endometritis (CE) include:<ref name="pmid2137304">{{cite journal| author=Kiviat NB, Wølner-Hanssen P, Eschenbach DA, Wasserheit JN, Paavonen JA, Bell TA | display-authors=etal| title=Endometrial histopathology in patients with culture-proved upper genital tract infection and laparoscopically diagnosed acute salpingitis. | journal=Am J Surg Pathol | year= 1990 | volume= 14 | issue= 2 | pages= 167-75 | pmid=2137304 | doi=10.1097/00000478-199002000-00008 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2137304  }} </ref><ref name="pmid7254729">{{cite journal| author=Greenwood SM, Moran JJ| title=Chronic endometritis: morphologic and clinical observations. | journal=Obstet Gynecol | year= 1981 | volume= 58 | issue= 2 | pages= 176-84 | pmid=7254729 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7254729  }} </ref>
-* Infiltration of plasmacytes in [[endometrial]] [[stroma]]
-* Increase in [[stromal cell]] density
+*Infiltration of plasmacytes in [[endometrial]] [[stroma]]
-* Dissociated maturation between [[epithelium]] and [[stroma]]
+*Increase in [[stromal cell]] density
-* [[Edema]] of [[endometrial]] superficial [[stroma]]
+*Dissociated maturation between [[epithelium]] and [[stroma]]
+*[[Edema]] of [[endometrial]] superficial [[stroma]]
+<br />
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+
+! colspan="2" |Histopathology
+|-
+|'''Acute Endometritis'''
+|'''Chronic Endometritis'''
+|-
+|The [[histopathologic]] findings in [[acute]] endometritis include:<ref name="pmid2137304" />
+*Microabscess formation
+*[[Neutrophil]] invasion in:
+**[[Endometrial]] superficial [[epithelium]] and [[gland]] lumina
+**[[Uterine]] cavity
+|The [[histopathologic]] findings in [[chronic]] endometritis (CE) include:<ref name="pmid2137304" /><ref name="pmid7254729" />
+*Infiltration of plasmacytes in [[endometrial]] [[stroma]]
+*Increase in [[stromal cell]] density
+*Dissociated maturation between [[epithelium]] and [[stroma]]
+*[[Edema]] of [[endometrial]] superficial [[stroma]]
+|}
 [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]] causes a subtype of [[chronic]] endometritis (CE) (chronic [[granulomatous]] endometritis) in some developing countries.  [[Histopathological|Histopathologically]], chronic [[granulomatous]] endometritis has [[caseating]] [[granuloma]] surrounded by infiltrates of lymphocytes which include endometrial [[stromal]] plasmacytes (ESPCs).<ref name="pmid18842939">{{cite journal| author=Kumar P, Shah NP, Singhal A, Chauhan DS, Katoch VM, Mittal S | display-authors=etal| title=Association of tuberculous endometritis with infertility and other gynecological complaints of women in India. | journal=J Clin Microbiol | year= 2008 | volume= 46 | issue= 12 | pages= 4068-70 | pmid=18842939 | doi=10.1128/JCM.01162-08 | pmc=2593260 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18842939  }} </ref>
@@ Line 107: / Line 138: @@
 '''Postpartum endometritis''' is caused by [[bacteria]] ascending from the lower [[genital]] tract into the [[cervix]] during labor. These bacteria that are the [[vaginal]] [[microflora]] include:<ref name="pmid16085035">{{cite journal| author=Faro S| title=Postpartum endometritis. | journal=Clin Perinatol | year= 2005 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 803-14 | pmid=16085035 | doi=10.1016/j.clp.2005.04.005 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16085035  }} </ref>
-* Alpha hemolytic [[streptococci]]
+*Alpha hemolytic [[streptococci]]
-* [[Corynebacterium]]
+*[[Corynebacterium]]
-* [[Diphtheroid|Diphtheroids]]
+*[[Diphtheroid|Diphtheroids]]
-* [[E.coli]]
+*[[E.coli]]
-* [[Enterobacter]] agglomerans, E cloacae, E aerogenes
+*[[Enterobacter]] agglomerans, E cloacae, E aerogenes
-* [[Fusobacterium necrophorum]]
+*[[Fusobacterium necrophorum]]
-* [[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]
+*[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]
-* [[Lactobacillus]] crispatus, L casei, L jansei
+*[[Lactobacillus]] crispatus, L casei, L jansei
-* [[Mycoplasma]] genitalia, M hominis
+*[[Mycoplasma]] genitalia, M hominis
-* Nondescript [[streptococci]]
+*Nondescript [[streptococci]]
-* [[Prevotella]] bivia, P melaninogenicus
+*[[Prevotella]] bivia, P melaninogenicus
-* [[Staphylococcus epidermidis]]
+*[[Staphylococcus epidermidis]]
-* [[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]
+*[[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]
 '''Acute endometritis''' is mostly caused by [[Chlamydia trachomatis]] and [[Neisseria gonorrhoeae]]<ref name="pmid21996319">{{cite journal| author=Vicetti Miguel RD, Chivukula M, Krishnamurti U, Amortegui AJ, Kant JA, Sweet RL | display-authors=etal| title=Limitations of the criteria used to diagnose histologic endometritis in epidemiologic pelvic inflammatory disease research. | journal=Pathol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 207 | issue= 11 | pages= 680-5 | pmid=21996319 | doi=10.1016/j.prp.2011.08.007 | pmc=3215901 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21996319  }} </ref>.
 The most common cause of '''[[chronic]] endometritis (CE)''' is an [[infection]] with [[microorganisms]], including:<ref name="pmid17531993">{{cite journal| author=Cicinelli E, De Ziegler D, Nicoletti R, Colafiglio G, Saliani N, Resta L | display-authors=etal| title=Chronic endometritis: correlation among hysteroscopic, histologic, and bacteriologic findings in a prospective trial with 2190 consecutive office hysteroscopies. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2008 | volume= 89 | issue= 3 | pages= 677-84 | pmid=17531993 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.03.074 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17531993  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19521097">{{cite journal| author=Cicinelli E, De Ziegler D, Nicoletti R, Tinelli R, Saliani N, Resta L | display-authors=etal| title=Poor reliability of vaginal and endocervical cultures for evaluating microbiology of endometrial cavity in women with chronic endometritis. | journal=Gynecol Obstet Invest | year= 2009 | volume= 68 | issue= 2 | pages= 108-15 | pmid=19521097 | doi=10.1159/000223819 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19521097  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28608596">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Matsubayashi H, Takaya Y, Nishiyama R, Yamaguchi K, Takeuchi T | display-authors=etal| title=Live birth rate following oral antibiotic treatment for chronic endometritis in infertile women with repeated implantation failure. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2017 | volume= 78 | issue= 5 | pages=  | pmid=28608596 | doi=10.1111/aji.12719 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28608596  }} </ref>
-* [[Bacteria]]:
-** [[Escherichia coli]]
+*[[Bacteria]]:
-** [[Streptococcus]] species
+**[[Escherichia coli]]
-** [[Staphylococcus]] species
+**[[Streptococcus]] species
-** [[Enterococcus faecalis]]
+**[[Staphylococcus]] species
-** [[Mycoplasma]] or [[ureaplasma]] species:
+**[[Enterococcus faecalis]]
-*** [[Mycoplasma genitalium]]
+**[[Mycoplasma]] or [[ureaplasma]] species:
-*** [[Mycoplasma hominis]]
+***[[Mycoplasma genitalium]]
-*** [[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]
+***[[Mycoplasma hominis]]
-** [[Proteus]]  species
+***[[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]
-** [[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]
+**[[Proteus]]  species
-** [[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]
+**[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]
-** [[Gardnerella vaginalis]]
+**[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]
-** [[Corynebacterium]]
+**[[Gardnerella vaginalis]]
-* Yeats:
+**[[Corynebacterium]]
-** [[Candida]] species
+*Yeats:
-** [[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]
+**[[Candida]] species
+**[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]
 [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]] causes a subtype of [[chronic]] endometritis (CE) (chronic [[granulomatous]] endometritis) in some developing countries.<ref name="pmid18842939">{{cite journal| author=Kumar P, Shah NP, Singhal A, Chauhan DS, Katoch VM, Mittal S | display-authors=etal| title=Association of tuberculous endometritis with infertility and other gynecological complaints of women in India. | journal=J Clin Microbiol | year= 2008 | volume= 46 | issue= 12 | pages= 4068-70 | pmid=18842939 | doi=10.1128/JCM.01162-08 | pmc=2593260 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18842939  }} </ref>
@@ Line 149: / Line 181: @@
 ==Differentiating Endometritis  from other Diseases==
-'''Puerperal endometritis''' must be differentiated from:<ref name="Cunningham 2010 p. ">{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=F | title=Williams obstetrics | publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical | publication-place=New York | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-07-149701-5 | oclc=495191519 | page=}}</ref>
+'''Puerperal endometritis''' must be differentiated from:<ref name="Cunningham 2010 p.">{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=F | title=Williams obstetrics | publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical | publication-place=New York | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-07-149701-5 | oclc=495191519 | page=}}</ref>
-* [[Respiratory]] disorders
+*[[Respiratory]] disorders
-* [[Pyelonephritis]]
+*[[Pyelonephritis]]
-* [[Appendicitis]]
+*[[Appendicitis]]
 ==Epidemiology==
 '''Puerperal Endometritis'''
-The [[prevalence]] of endometritis is 1% to 2% of births and 27% of cesarean births.<ref name="pmid15495005">{{cite journal| author=French LM, Smaill FM| title=Antibiotic regimens for endometritis after delivery. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2004 | volume=  | issue= 4 | pages= CD001067 | pmid=15495005 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001067.pub2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15495005  }} </ref><ref name="Sweet 2009 p. ">{{cite book | last=Sweet | first=Richard | title=Infectious diseases of the female genital tract | publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | publication-place=Philadelphia | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-7817-7815-2 | oclc=268792315 | page=}}</ref>
+The [[prevalence]] of endometritis is 1% to 2% of births and 27% of cesarean births.<ref name="pmid15495005">{{cite journal| author=French LM, Smaill FM| title=Antibiotic regimens for endometritis after delivery. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2004 | volume=  | issue= 4 | pages= CD001067 | pmid=15495005 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001067.pub2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15495005  }} </ref><ref name="Sweet 2009 p.">{{cite book | last=Sweet | first=Richard | title=Infectious diseases of the female genital tract | publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | publication-place=Philadelphia | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-7817-7815-2 | oclc=268792315 | page=}}</ref>
 '''Chronic Endometritis'''
@@ Line 171: / Line 203: @@
 ==Risk Factors==
-Risk factors associated with '''puerperal endometritis''' include:<ref name="pmid15495005">{{cite journal| author=French LM, Smaill FM| title=Antibiotic regimens for endometritis after delivery. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2004 | volume=  | issue= 4 | pages= CD001067 | pmid=15495005 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001067.pub2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15495005  }} </ref><ref name="Sweet 2009 p. ">{{cite book | last=Sweet | first=Richard | title=Infectious diseases of the female genital tract | publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | publication-place=Philadelphia | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-7817-7815-2 | oclc=268792315 | page=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19889389">{{cite journal| author=Belfort MA, Clark SL, Saade GR, Kleja K, Dildy GA, Van Veen TR | display-authors=etal| title=Hospital readmission after delivery: evidence for an increased incidence of nonurogenital infection in the immediate postpartum period. | journal=Am J Obstet Gynecol | year= 2010 | volume= 202 | issue= 1 | pages= 35.e1-7 | pmid=19889389 | doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2009.08.029 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19889389  }} </ref><ref name="pmid16085035">{{cite journal| author=Faro S| title=Postpartum endometritis. | journal=Clin Perinatol | year= 2005 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 803-14 | pmid=16085035 | doi=10.1016/j.clp.2005.04.005 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16085035  }} </ref>
+Risk factors associated with '''puerperal endometritis''' include:<ref name="pmid15495005">{{cite journal| author=French LM, Smaill FM| title=Antibiotic regimens for endometritis after delivery. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2004 | volume=  | issue= 4 | pages= CD001067 | pmid=15495005 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001067.pub2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15495005  }} </ref><ref name="Sweet 2009 p.">{{cite book | last=Sweet | first=Richard | title=Infectious diseases of the female genital tract | publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | publication-place=Philadelphia | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-7817-7815-2 | oclc=268792315 | page=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19889389">{{cite journal| author=Belfort MA, Clark SL, Saade GR, Kleja K, Dildy GA, Van Veen TR | display-authors=etal| title=Hospital readmission after delivery: evidence for an increased incidence of nonurogenital infection in the immediate postpartum period. | journal=Am J Obstet Gynecol | year= 2010 | volume= 202 | issue= 1 | pages= 35.e1-7 | pmid=19889389 | doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2009.08.029 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19889389  }} </ref><ref name="pmid16085035">{{cite journal| author=Faro S| title=Postpartum endometritis. | journal=Clin Perinatol | year= 2005 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 803-14 | pmid=16085035 | doi=10.1016/j.clp.2005.04.005 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16085035  }} </ref>
-* [[Cesarean]] birth
+*[[Cesarean]] birth
-* [[Surgical]] or instrumental birth
+*[[Surgical]] or instrumental birth
-* [[Chorioamnionitis]]
+*[[Chorioamnionitis]]
-* Prolonged rupture of membranes
+*Prolonged rupture of membranes
-* Retained [[placental]] fragments
+*Retained [[placental]] fragments
-* [[Postpartum hemorrhage]]
+*[[Postpartum hemorrhage]]
-* Frequent [[vaginal]] examinations
+*Frequent [[vaginal]] examinations
-* Colonization with [[group B Streptococcus]]
+*Colonization with [[group B Streptococcus]]
 [[Risk factors]] that have been reported to be associated with '''[[chronic]] endometritis (CE)''' include:<ref name="pmid21749546">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Yasuo T| title=Immunohistochemistrical and clinicopathological characterization of chronic endometritis. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2011 | volume= 66 | issue= 5 | pages= 410-5 | pmid=21749546 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01051.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21749546  }} </ref><ref name="pmid4984305">{{cite journal| author=Moyer DL, Mishell DR, Bell J| title=Reactions of human endometrium to the intrauterine device. I. Correlation of the endometrial histology with the bacterial environment of the uterus following short-term insertion of the IUD. | journal=Am J Obstet Gynecol | year= 1970 | volume= 106 | issue= 6 | pages= 799-809 | pmid=4984305 | doi=10.1016/0002-9378(70)90470-9 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4984305  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19952932">{{cite journal| author=Smith M, Hagerty KA, Skipper B, Bocklage T| title=Chronic endometritis: a combined histopathologic and clinical review of cases from 2002 to 2007. | journal=Int J Gynecol Pathol | year= 2010 | volume= 29 | issue= 1 | pages= 44-50 | pmid=19952932 | doi=10.1097/PGP.0b013e3181ae81bb | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19952932  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27596852">{{cite journal| author=Chen YQ, Fang RL, Luo YN, Luo CQ| title=Analysis of the diagnostic value of CD138 for chronic endometritis, the risk factors for the pathogenesis of chronic endometritis and the effect of chronic endometritis on pregnancy: a cohort study. | journal=BMC Womens Health | year= 2016 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 60 | pmid=27596852 | doi=10.1186/s12905-016-0341-3 | pmc=5477816 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27596852  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28624114">{{cite journal| author=Cicinelli E, Trojano G, Mastromauro M, Vimercati A, Marinaccio M, Mitola PC | display-authors=etal| title=Higher prevalence of chronic endometritis in women with endometriosis: a possible etiopathogenetic link. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2017 | volume= 108 | issue= 2 | pages= 289-295.e1 | pmid=28624114 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2017.05.016 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28624114  }} </ref><ref name="pmid24558386">{{cite journal| author=Takebayashi A, Kimura F, Kishi Y, Ishida M, Takahashi A, Yamanaka A | display-authors=etal| title=The association between endometriosis and chronic endometritis. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2014 | volume= 9 | issue= 2 | pages= e88354 | pmid=24558386 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0088354 | pmc=3928198 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24558386  }} </ref><ref name="pmid7862377">{{cite journal| author=Korn AP, Bolan G, Padian N, Ohm-Smith M, Schachter J, Landers DV| title=Plasma cell endometritis in women with symptomatic bacterial vaginosis. | journal=Obstet Gynecol | year= 1995 | volume= 85 | issue= 3 | pages= 387-90 | pmid=7862377 | doi=10.1016/0029-7844(94)00400-8 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7862377  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9396917">{{cite journal| author=Peipert JF, Montagno AB, Cooper AS, Sung CJ| title=Bacterial vaginosis as a risk factor for upper genital tract infection. | journal=Am J Obstet Gynecol | year= 1997 | volume= 177 | issue= 5 | pages= 1184-7 | pmid=9396917 | doi=10.1016/s0002-9378(97)70038-3 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9396917  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22419745">{{cite journal| author=Jindal UN, Verma S, Bala Y| title=Favorable infertility outcomes following anti-tubercular treatment prescribed on the sole basis of a positive polymerase chain reaction test for endometrial tuberculosis. | journal=Hum Reprod | year= 2012 | volume= 27 | issue= 5 | pages= 1368-74 | pmid=22419745 | doi=10.1093/humrep/des076 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22419745  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6414236">{{cite journal| author=Degani S, Gonen R, de Vries K, Sharf M| title=Endometrial ossification associated with repeated abortions. | journal=Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand | year= 1983 | volume= 62 | issue= 3 | pages= 281-2 | pmid=6414236 | doi=10.3109/00016348309155810 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6414236  }} </ref>
-* Intrauterine [[contraceptive]] devices (continuous use)
+*Intrauterine [[contraceptive]] devices (continuous use)
-* Prolonged [[menstruation]]
+*Prolonged [[menstruation]]
-* Atypical [[uterine bleeding]]
+*Atypical [[uterine bleeding]]
-* [[Fallopian tube]] obstruction
+*[[Fallopian tube]] obstruction
-* Multiparity
+*Multiparity
-* [[Abortion]]
+*[[Abortion]]
-* [[Bacterial vaginosis]]
+*[[Bacterial vaginosis]]
-* [[Endometrial hyperplasia]]
+*[[Endometrial hyperplasia]]
-* Submucosal [[fibroids]]
+*Submucosal [[fibroids]]
-* [[Endometriosis]]
+*[[Endometriosis]]
-* [[Endometrial]] osseous [[metaplasia]]
+*[[Endometrial]] osseous [[metaplasia]]
-* [[Tuberculosis]]
+*[[Tuberculosis]]
 ==Screening==
@@ Line 205: / Line 237: @@
 ===Natural History===
 Studies have suggested that patients with '''chronic endometritis (CE)''' may develop:<ref name="pmid26478517">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Matsubayashi H, Yamaguchi K, Nishiyama R, Takaya Y, Ishikawa T | display-authors=etal| title=Chronic Endometritis: Potential Cause of Infertility and Obstetric and Neonatal Complications. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2016 | volume= 75 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=26478517 | doi=10.1111/aji.12438 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26478517  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15482749">{{cite journal| author=Romero R, Espinoza J, Mazor M| title=Can endometrial infection/inflammation explain implantation failure, spontaneous abortion, and preterm birth after in vitro fertilization? | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2004 | volume= 82 | issue= 4 | pages= 799-804 | pmid=15482749 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2004.05.076 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15482749  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21232841">{{cite journal| author=Zolghadri J, Momtahan M, Aminian K, Ghaffarpasand F, Tavana Z| title=The value of hysteroscopy in diagnosis of chronic endometritis in patients with unexplained recurrent spontaneous abortion. | journal=Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol | year= 2011 | volume= 155 | issue= 2 | pages= 217-20 | pmid=21232841 | doi=10.1016/j.ejogrb.2010.12.010 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21232841  }} </ref>
-* [[Infertility]]
-* Recurrent [[implantation]] failure (RIF)
+*[[Infertility]]
-* Recurrent [[pregnancy loss|pregnancy losses]] (RPLs)
+*Recurrent [[implantation]] failure (RIF)
+*Recurrent [[pregnancy loss|pregnancy losses]] (RPLs)
 ===Complications===
-Complications of '''puerperal endometritis''' after [[cesarean]] birth may include:<ref name="Sweet 2009 p. ">{{cite book | last=Sweet | first=Richard | title=Infectious diseases of the female genital tract | publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | publication-place=Philadelphia | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-7817-7815-2 | oclc=268792315 | page=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23090454">{{cite journal| author=Soper DE| title=Early recognition of serious infections in obstetrics and gynecology. | journal=Clin Obstet Gynecol | year= 2012 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 858-63 | pmid=23090454 | doi=10.1097/GRF.0b013e3182730f43 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23090454  }} </ref>
+Complications of '''puerperal endometritis''' after [[cesarean]] birth may include:<ref name="Sweet 2009 p.">{{cite book | last=Sweet | first=Richard | title=Infectious diseases of the female genital tract | publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | publication-place=Philadelphia | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-7817-7815-2 | oclc=268792315 | page=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23090454">{{cite journal| author=Soper DE| title=Early recognition of serious infections in obstetrics and gynecology. | journal=Clin Obstet Gynecol | year= 2012 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 858-63 | pmid=23090454 | doi=10.1097/GRF.0b013e3182730f43 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23090454  }} </ref>
-* [[Abscess]]
+*[[Abscess]]
-* [[Sepsis]]
+*[[Sepsis]]
-* [[Necrotizing fasciitis]]
+*[[Necrotizing fasciitis]]
-* [[Hematoma]]
+*[[Hematoma]]
-* Septic pelvic [[thrombophlebitis]]
+*Septic pelvic [[thrombophlebitis]]
-* [[Pneumonia]]
+*[[Pneumonia]]
-* [[Pyelonephritis]]
+*[[Pyelonephritis]]
 Common [[complications]] of '''chronic endometritis (CE)''' include:<ref name="pmid19217098">{{cite journal| author=Johnston-MacAnanny EB, Hartnett J, Engmann LL, Nulsen JC, Sanders MM, Benadiva CA| title=Chronic endometritis is a frequent finding in women with recurrent implantation failure after in vitro fertilization. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2010 | volume= 93 | issue= 2 | pages= 437-41 | pmid=19217098 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.131 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19217098  }} </ref><ref name="pmid24462055">{{cite journal| author=McQueen DB, Bernardi LA, Stephenson MD| title=Chronic endometritis in women with recurrent early pregnancy loss and/or fetal demise. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 4 | pages= 1026-30 | pmid=24462055 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.12.031 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24462055  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21030015">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K| title=Prevalence of chronic endometritis in recurrent miscarriages. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2011 | volume= 95 | issue= 3 | pages= 1156-8 | pmid=21030015 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.09.061 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21030015  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26478517">{{cite journal| author=Kitaya K, Matsubayashi H, Yamaguchi K, Nishiyama R, Takaya Y, Ishikawa T | display-authors=etal| title=Chronic Endometritis: Potential Cause of Infertility and Obstetric and Neonatal Complications. | journal=Am J Reprod Immunol | year= 2016 | volume= 75 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=26478517 | doi=10.1111/aji.12438 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26478517  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15901265">{{cite journal| author=Ghidini A, Salafia CM| title=Histologic placental lesions in women with recurrent preterm delivery. | journal=Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand | year= 2005 | volume= 84 | issue= 6 | pages= 547-50 | pmid=15901265 | doi=10.1111/j.0001-6349.2005.00694.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15901265  }} </ref>
-* [[Infertility]]
+*[[Infertility]]
-* Recurrent [[miscarriages]]
+*Recurrent [[miscarriages]]
-* Recurrent [[implantation]] failure following [[in vitro fertilization]] and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) treatment
+*Recurrent [[implantation]] failure following [[in vitro fertilization]] and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) treatment
-* [[Obstetric]] complications
+*[[Obstetric]] complications
-* [[Neonatal]] complications
+*[[Neonatal]] complications
-* Chronic deciduitis
+*Chronic deciduitis
 ===Prognosis===
@@ Line 242: / Line 276: @@
 ===History and  Symptoms===
-[[Symptoms]] of '''acute endometritis''' may include:<ref name="pmid7604765">{{cite journal| author=Michels TC| title=Chronic endometritis. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 1995 | volume= 52 | issue= 1 | pages= 217-22 | pmid=7604765 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7604765  }} </ref><ref name="King 2015 p. ">{{cite book | last=King | first=Tekoa | title=Varney's midwifery | publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning | publication-place=Burlington, MA | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-284-02541-5 | oclc=855888968 | page=}}</ref>
+[[Symptoms]] of '''acute endometritis''' may include:<ref name="pmid7604765">{{cite journal| author=Michels TC| title=Chronic endometritis. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 1995 | volume= 52 | issue= 1 | pages= 217-22 | pmid=7604765 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7604765  }} </ref><ref name="King 2015 p.">{{cite book | last=King | first=Tekoa | title=Varney's midwifery | publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning | publication-place=Burlington, MA | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-284-02541-5 | oclc=855888968 | page=}}</ref>
-* [[Fever]]
-* [[Pelvic]] pain
+*[[Fever]]
-* [[Vaginal discharge]]
+*[[Pelvic]] pain
-* [[Anorexia]]
+*[[Vaginal discharge]]
-* Chill
+*[[Anorexia]]
-* [[Malaise]]
+*Chill
+*[[Malaise]]
 '''[[Chronic]] endometritis (CE)''' is mostly [[asymptomatic]] but may have vague symptoms including:<ref name="pmid7604765">{{cite journal| author=Michels TC| title=Chronic endometritis. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 1995 | volume= 52 | issue= 1 | pages= 217-22 | pmid=7604765 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7604765  }} </ref><ref name="pmid748840">{{cite journal| author=Rotterdam H| title=Chronic endometritis. A clinicopathologic study. | journal=Pathol Annu | year= 1978 | volume= 13 Pt 2 | issue=  | pages= 209-31 | pmid=748840 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=748840  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9653909">{{cite journal| author=Yörükoğlu K, Kuyucouğlu F| title=Chronic nonspecific endometritis. | journal=Gen Diagn Pathol | year= 1998 | volume= 143 | issue= 5-6 | pages= 287-90 | pmid=9653909 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9653909  }} </ref>
-* [[Leucorrhea]]
-* Spotting/[[abnormal uterine bleeding]]
+*[[Leucorrhea]]
-* [[Pelvic]] discomfort/pain
+*Spotting/[[abnormal uterine bleeding]]
-* [[Dyspareunia]]
+*[[Pelvic]] discomfort/pain
+*[[Dyspareunia]]
 ===Physical Examination===
-Clinical findings found on [[physical examination]] in '''puerperal endometritis''' may include:<ref name="King 2015 p. ">{{cite book | last=King | first=Tekoa | title=Varney's midwifery | publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning | publication-place=Burlington, MA | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-284-02541-5 | oclc=855888968 | page=}}</ref>
+Clinical findings found on [[physical examination]] in '''puerperal endometritis''' may include:<ref name="King 2015 p.">{{cite book | last=King | first=Tekoa | title=Varney's midwifery | publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning | publication-place=Burlington, MA | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-284-02541-5 | oclc=855888968 | page=}}</ref>
-* [[Fever]]
+*[[Fever]]
-* [[Tachycardia]]
+*[[Tachycardia]]
-* [[Uterine]] [[tenderness]]
+*[[Uterine]] [[tenderness]]
-* [[Pelvic]] pain on bimanual examination
+*[[Pelvic]] pain on bimanual examination
-* [[Lochia]]
+*[[Lochia]]
-* Subinvolution of [[uterus]]
+*Subinvolution of [[uterus]]
 ===Laboratory Findings===
-Laboratory tests in '''puerperal endometritis''' include:<ref name="pmid17511893">{{cite journal| author=Maharaj D| title=Puerperal pyrexia: a review. Part I. | journal=Obstet Gynecol Surv | year= 2007 | volume= 62 | issue= 6 | pages= 393-9 | pmid=17511893 | doi=10.1097/01.ogx.0000265998.40912.5e | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17511893  }} </ref><ref name="Cunningham 2010 p. ">{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=F | title=Williams obstetrics | publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical | publication-place=New York | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-07-149701-5 | oclc=495191519 | page=}}</ref>
+Laboratory tests in '''puerperal endometritis''' include:<ref name="pmid17511893">{{cite journal| author=Maharaj D| title=Puerperal pyrexia: a review. Part I. | journal=Obstet Gynecol Surv | year= 2007 | volume= 62 | issue= 6 | pages= 393-9 | pmid=17511893 | doi=10.1097/01.ogx.0000265998.40912.5e | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17511893  }} </ref><ref name="Cunningham 2010 p.">{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=F | title=Williams obstetrics | publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical | publication-place=New York | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-07-149701-5 | oclc=495191519 | page=}}</ref>
-* [[Complete blood count]] with differential
+*[[Complete blood count]] with differential
-* [[Metabolic]] panel
+*[[Metabolic]] panel
-* [[Urine culture]]
+*[[Urine culture]]
-* [[Blood culture]]
+*[[Blood culture]]
 There is insufficient evidence that suggests obtaining endometrial or cervical cultures in '''puerperal endometritis''' due to contamination while obtaining an endometrial culture.<ref name="pmid24406036">{{cite journal| author=Karsnitz DB| title=Puerperal infections of the genital tract: a clinical review. | journal=J Midwifery Womens Health | year= 2013 | volume= 58 | issue= 6 | pages= 632-42 | pmid=24406036 | doi=10.1111/jmwh.12119 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24406036  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17511894">{{cite journal| author=Maharaj D| title=Puerperal Pyrexia: a review. Part II. | journal=Obstet Gynecol Surv | year= 2007 | volume= 62 | issue= 6 | pages= 400-6 | pmid=17511894 | doi=10.1097/01.ogx.0000266063.84571.fb | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17511894  }} </ref>
 [[Laboratory]] findings in '''acute endometritis''' may include:<ref name="pmid30843321">{{cite journal| author=Kimura F, Takebayashi A, Ishida M, Nakamura A, Kitazawa J, Morimune A | display-authors=etal| title=Review: Chronic endometritis and its effect on reproduction. | journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res | year= 2019 | volume= 45 | issue= 5 | pages= 951-960 | pmid=30843321 | doi=10.1111/jog.13937 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30843321  }} </ref>
-* [[Leukocytosis]]
-* Elevated serum [[inflammatory]] markers
+*[[Leukocytosis]]
+*Elevated serum [[inflammatory]] markers
 [[Staining]] used in  [[histological]] detection of '''chronic endometritis (CE)''' include:
-* [[Hematoxylin and eosin stain|Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)]]<ref name="pmid24462055">{{cite journal| author=McQueen DB, Bernardi LA, Stephenson MD| title=Chronic endometritis in women with recurrent early pregnancy loss and/or fetal demise. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 4 | pages= 1026-30 | pmid=24462055 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.12.031 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24462055  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22019126">{{cite journal| author=Kasius JC, Fatemi HM, Bourgain C, Sie-Go DM, Eijkemans RJ, Fauser BC | display-authors=etal| title=The impact of chronic endometritis on reproductive outcome. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2011 | volume= 96 | issue= 6 | pages= 1451-6 | pmid=22019126 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.09.039 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22019126  }} </ref>
-* [[Immunohistochemical staining|Immunohistochemical (IHC) stain]] that detects [[CD38]] and [[CD138]] [[plasma cell]]-specific surface [[antigens]]:
+*[[Hematoxylin and eosin stain|Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)]]<ref name="pmid24462055">{{cite journal| author=McQueen DB, Bernardi LA, Stephenson MD| title=Chronic endometritis in women with recurrent early pregnancy loss and/or fetal demise. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 4 | pages= 1026-30 | pmid=24462055 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.12.031 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24462055  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22019126">{{cite journal| author=Kasius JC, Fatemi HM, Bourgain C, Sie-Go DM, Eijkemans RJ, Fauser BC | display-authors=etal| title=The impact of chronic endometritis on reproductive outcome. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2011 | volume= 96 | issue= 6 | pages= 1451-6 | pmid=22019126 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.09.039 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22019126  }} </ref>
-** Confirms the presence of [[plasma cells]] in the [[endometrium]].<ref name="pmid15335255">{{cite journal| author=Bayer-Garner IB, Nickell JA, Korourian S| title=Routine syndecan-1 immunohistochemistry aids in the diagnosis of chronic endometritis. | journal=Arch Pathol Lab Med | year= 2004 | volume= 128 | issue= 9 | pages= 1000-3 | pmid=15335255 | doi=10.1043/1543-2165(2004)128<1000:RSIAIT>2.0.CO;2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15335255  }} </ref>
+*[[Immunohistochemical staining|Immunohistochemical (IHC) stain]] that detects [[CD38]] and [[CD138]] [[plasma cell]]-specific surface [[antigens]]:
-** [[Immunohistochemical staining|IHC staining]] for [[CD138]] has higher sensitivity for diagnosing CE compared to [[H&E stain|H&E staining]] (56% vs. 13%).<ref name="pmid26207958">{{cite journal| author=McQueen DB, Perfetto CO, Hazard FK, Lathi RB| title=Pregnancy outcomes in women with chronic endometritis and recurrent pregnancy loss. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2015 | volume= 104 | issue= 4 | pages= 927-931 | pmid=26207958 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.06.044 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26207958  }} </ref>
+**Confirms the presence of [[plasma cells]] in the [[endometrium]].<ref name="pmid15335255">{{cite journal| author=Bayer-Garner IB, Nickell JA, Korourian S| title=Routine syndecan-1 immunohistochemistry aids in the diagnosis of chronic endometritis. | journal=Arch Pathol Lab Med | year= 2004 | volume= 128 | issue= 9 | pages= 1000-3 | pmid=15335255 | doi=10.1043/1543-2165(2004)128<1000:RSIAIT>2.0.CO;2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15335255  }} </ref>
+**[[Immunohistochemical staining|IHC staining]] for [[CD138]] has higher sensitivity for diagnosing CE compared to [[H&E stain|H&E staining]] (56% vs. 13%).<ref name="pmid26207958">{{cite journal| author=McQueen DB, Perfetto CO, Hazard FK, Lathi RB| title=Pregnancy outcomes in women with chronic endometritis and recurrent pregnancy loss. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2015 | volume= 104 | issue= 4 | pages= 927-931 | pmid=26207958 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.06.044 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26207958  }} </ref>
 ===Electrocardiogram===
@@ Line 290: / Line 328: @@
 ===X-ray===
-There are no [[x-ray]] findings associated with endometritis. However, a [[chest x-ray]] should be performed if there is suspicion of a [[respiratory]] disorder.<ref name="Cunningham 2010 p. ">{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=F | title=Williams obstetrics | publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical | publication-place=New York | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-07-149701-5 | oclc=495191519 | page=}}</ref>
+There are no [[x-ray]] findings associated with endometritis. However, a [[chest x-ray]] should be performed if there is suspicion of a [[respiratory]] disorder.<ref name="Cunningham 2010 p.">{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=F | title=Williams obstetrics | publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical | publication-place=New York | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-07-149701-5 | oclc=495191519 | page=}}</ref>
 ===Echocardiography or Ultrasound===
@@ Line 297: / Line 335: @@
 [[Ultrasound]] is usually not helpful in the [[diagnosis]] of endometritis. However, an [[ultrasound]] may be helpful to rule out other disorders in [[postpartum]] patients that are nonresponsive to therapy.<ref name="pmid12719915">{{cite journal| author=Bennett GL, Harvey WB, Slywotzky CM, Birnbaum BA| title=CT of the acute abdomen: gynecologic etiologies. | journal=Abdom Imaging | year= 2003 | volume= 28 | issue= 3 | pages= 416-32 | pmid=12719915 | doi=10.1007/s00261-002-0052-0 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12719915  }} </ref>
 [[Ultrasound]] and [[CT]] findings in '''[[postpartum]] endometritis''' may include:<ref name="pmid12719915">{{cite journal| author=Bennett GL, Harvey WB, Slywotzky CM, Birnbaum BA| title=CT of the acute abdomen: gynecologic etiologies. | journal=Abdom Imaging | year= 2003 | volume= 28 | issue= 3 | pages= 416-32 | pmid=12719915 | doi=10.1007/s00261-002-0052-0 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12719915  }} </ref><ref name="pmid1631288">{{cite journal| author=Langer JE, Dinsmore BJ| title=Computed tomographic evaluation of benign and inflammatory disorders of the female pelvis. | journal=Radiol Clin North Am | year= 1992 | volume= 30 | issue= 4 | pages= 831-42 | pmid=1631288 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1631288  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10349536">{{cite journal| author=Urban BA, Pankov BL, Fishman EK| title=Postpartum complications in the abdomen and pelvis: CT evaluation. | journal=Crit Rev Diagn Imaging | year= 1999 | volume= 40 | issue= 1 | pages= 1-21 | pmid=10349536 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10349536  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8356266">{{cite journal| author=Rooholamini SA, Au AH, Hansen GC, Kioumehr F, Dadsetan MR, Chow PP | display-authors=etal| title=Imaging of pregnancy-related complications. | journal=Radiographics | year= 1993 | volume= 13 | issue= 4 | pages= 753-70 | pmid=8356266 | doi=10.1148/radiographics.13.4.8356266 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8356266  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9057511">{{cite journal| author=Zuckerman J, Levine D, McNicholas MM, Konopka S, Goldstein A, Edelman RR | display-authors=etal| title=Imaging of pelvic postpartum complications. | journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol | year= 1997 | volume= 168 | issue= 3 | pages= 663-8 | pmid=9057511 | doi=10.2214/ajr.168.3.9057511 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9057511  }} </ref>
-* Normal [[uterus]]
+*Normal [[uterus]]
 or
-* Nonspecific findings due to retained products of [[conception]]:
-** Intrauterine fluid (with or without internal echoes due to [[blood]], [[gas]], or retained products of [[pregnancy]])
+*Nonspecific findings due to retained products of [[conception]]:
-** Thickened heterogeneous [[endometrium]]
+**Intrauterine fluid (with or without internal echoes due to [[blood]], [[gas]], or retained products of [[pregnancy]])
+**Thickened heterogeneous [[endometrium]]
 ===CT scan===
 [[Ultrasound]] and [[CT]] findings in '''[[postpartum]] endometritis''' may include:<ref name="pmid12719915">{{cite journal| author=Bennett GL, Harvey WB, Slywotzky CM, Birnbaum BA| title=CT of the acute abdomen: gynecologic etiologies. | journal=Abdom Imaging | year= 2003 | volume= 28 | issue= 3 | pages= 416-32 | pmid=12719915 | doi=10.1007/s00261-002-0052-0 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12719915  }} </ref><ref name="pmid1631288">{{cite journal| author=Langer JE, Dinsmore BJ| title=Computed tomographic evaluation of benign and inflammatory disorders of the female pelvis. | journal=Radiol Clin North Am | year= 1992 | volume= 30 | issue= 4 | pages= 831-42 | pmid=1631288 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1631288  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10349536">{{cite journal| author=Urban BA, Pankov BL, Fishman EK| title=Postpartum complications in the abdomen and pelvis: CT evaluation. | journal=Crit Rev Diagn Imaging | year= 1999 | volume= 40 | issue= 1 | pages= 1-21 | pmid=10349536 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10349536  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8356266">{{cite journal| author=Rooholamini SA, Au AH, Hansen GC, Kioumehr F, Dadsetan MR, Chow PP | display-authors=etal| title=Imaging of pregnancy-related complications. | journal=Radiographics | year= 1993 | volume= 13 | issue= 4 | pages= 753-70 | pmid=8356266 | doi=10.1148/radiographics.13.4.8356266 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8356266  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9057511">{{cite journal| author=Zuckerman J, Levine D, McNicholas MM, Konopka S, Goldstein A, Edelman RR | display-authors=etal| title=Imaging of pelvic postpartum complications. | journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol | year= 1997 | volume= 168 | issue= 3 | pages= 663-8 | pmid=9057511 | doi=10.2214/ajr.168.3.9057511 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9057511  }} </ref>
-* Normal [[uterus]]
+*Normal [[uterus]]
 or
-* Nonspecific findings due to retained products of [[conception]]:
-** Intrauterine fluid (with or without internal echoes due to [[blood]], [[gas]], or retained products of [[pregnancy]])
+*Nonspecific findings due to retained products of [[conception]]:
-** Thickened heterogeneous [[endometrium]]
+**Intrauterine fluid (with or without internal echoes due to [[blood]], [[gas]], or retained products of [[pregnancy]])
+**Thickened heterogeneous [[endometrium]]
 Compared to ultrasound, [[CT scan]] is more helpful in identifying the [[inflammation]] of the soft tissues and pelvic [[abscesses]].<ref name="pmid12110710">{{cite journal| author=Bennett GL, Slywotzky CM, Giovanniello G| title=Gynecologic causes of acute pelvic pain: spectrum of CT findings. | journal=Radiographics | year= 2002 | volume= 22 | issue= 4 | pages= 785-801 | pmid=12110710 | doi=10.1148/radiographics.22.4.g02jl18785 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12110710  }} </ref>
@@ Line 318: / Line 362: @@
 ===Other Imaging Findings===
 Fluid [[hysteroscopy]] is helpful in diagnosing '''chronic endometritis (CE)''' and the findings include:<ref name="pmid15734762">{{cite journal| author=Cicinelli E, Resta L, Nicoletti R, Zappimbulso V, Tartagni M, Saliani N| title=Endometrial micropolyps at fluid hysteroscopy suggest the existence of chronic endometritis. | journal=Hum Reprod | year= 2005 | volume= 20 | issue= 5 | pages= 1386-9 | pmid=15734762 | doi=10.1093/humrep/deh779 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15734762  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17531993">{{cite journal| author=Cicinelli E, De Ziegler D, Nicoletti R, Colafiglio G, Saliani N, Resta L | display-authors=etal| title=Chronic endometritis: correlation among hysteroscopic, histologic, and bacteriologic findings in a prospective trial with 2190 consecutive office hysteroscopies. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2008 | volume= 89 | issue= 3 | pages= 677-84 | pmid=17531993 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.03.074 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17531993  }} </ref>
-* [[Edema]] of the [[stroma]]
-* Micropolyps
+*[[Edema]] of the [[stroma]]
-* Focal or diffuse [[hyperemia]]
+*Micropolyps
+*Focal or diffuse [[hyperemia]]
 ==Treatment==
@@ Line 326: / Line 371: @@
 Patients with '''postpartum endometritis''' are recommended to be treated with either:<ref name="pmid25751198">{{cite journal| author=Meaney-Delman D, Bartlett LA, Gravett MG, Jamieson DJ| title=Oral and intramuscular treatment options for early postpartum endometritis in low-resource settings: a systematic review. | journal=Obstet Gynecol | year= 2015 | volume= 125 | issue= 4 | pages= 789-800 | pmid=25751198 | doi=10.1097/AOG.0000000000000732 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25751198  }} </ref>
-* [[Clindamycin]] plus [[gentamicin]] (600 mg/every 6 h/[[oral]] or 4.5 g/every 24 h/IM)
+*[[Clindamycin]] plus [[gentamicin]] (600 mg/every 6 h/[[oral]] or 4.5 g/every 24 h/IM)
-* [[Amoxicillin clavulanate|Amoxicillin–clavulanic acid]] (875 mg/every 12 h /oral)
+*[[Amoxicillin clavulanate|Amoxicillin–clavulanic acid]] (875 mg/every 12 h /oral)
-* [[Cefotetan]] (2 g/every 8 h/IM)
+*[[Cefotetan]] (2 g/every 8 h/IM)
-* [[Meropenem]] or [[imipenem]]–[[cilastatin]] (500 mg/every 8 h/IM)
+*[[Meropenem]] or [[imipenem]]–[[cilastatin]] (500 mg/every 8 h/IM)
-* [[Amoxicillin]] plus [[metronidazole]] (500 mg/every 8 h/[[oral]])
+*[[Amoxicillin]] plus [[metronidazole]] (500 mg/every 8 h/[[oral]])
 Patients with '''chronic endometritis (CE)''' are treated with:
-* First-line therapy:
-** [[Doxycycline]] 100 mg/twice per day/14 days<ref name="pmid19217098">{{cite journal| author=Johnston-MacAnanny EB, Hartnett J, Engmann LL, Nulsen JC, Sanders MM, Benadiva CA| title=Chronic endometritis is a frequent finding in women with recurrent implantation failure after in vitro fertilization. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2010 | volume= 93 | issue= 2 | pages= 437-41 | pmid=19217098 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.131 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19217098  }} </ref>
+*First-line therapy:
-* Second-line therapy:
+**[[Doxycycline]] 100 mg/twice per day/14 days<ref name="pmid19217098">{{cite journal| author=Johnston-MacAnanny EB, Hartnett J, Engmann LL, Nulsen JC, Sanders MM, Benadiva CA| title=Chronic endometritis is a frequent finding in women with recurrent implantation failure after in vitro fertilization. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2010 | volume= 93 | issue= 2 | pages= 437-41 | pmid=19217098 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.131 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19217098  }} </ref>
-** Combination of [[ofloxacin]]/400 mg/twice per day/14 days and [[metronidazole]]/500 mg/twice per day /14 days<ref name="pmid24462055">{{cite journal| author=McQueen DB, Bernardi LA, Stephenson MD| title=Chronic endometritis in women with recurrent early pregnancy loss and/or fetal demise. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 4 | pages= 1026-30 | pmid=24462055 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.12.031 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24462055  }} </ref>
+*Second-line therapy:
+**Combination of [[ofloxacin]]/400 mg/twice per day/14 days and [[metronidazole]]/500 mg/twice per day /14 days<ref name="pmid24462055">{{cite journal| author=McQueen DB, Bernardi LA, Stephenson MD| title=Chronic endometritis in women with recurrent early pregnancy loss and/or fetal demise. | journal=Fertil Steril | year= 2014 | volume= 101 | issue= 4 | pages= 1026-30 | pmid=24462055 | doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.12.031 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24462055  }} </ref>
 ===Surgery===
@@ Line 349: / Line 395: @@
   | year= 2006 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=21834192 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref>
-* Routine [[antepartum]] screening and treatment of [[GBS]] and [[infections]]
+*Routine [[antepartum]] screening and treatment of [[GBS]] and [[infections]]
-* [[Handwashing]]
+*[[Handwashing]]
-* [[Aseptic]] procedure
+*[[Aseptic]] procedure
-* Decrease in [[vaginal]] examinations
+*Decrease in [[vaginal]] examinations
-* Limiting use of invasive procedures
+*Limiting use of invasive procedures
-* Limiting [[Episiotomy|episiotomies]]
+*Limiting [[Episiotomy|episiotomies]]
-* Synthetic [[suture]] use
+*Synthetic [[suture]] use
-* Decrease in [[cesarean]] births
+*Decrease in [[cesarean]] births
-* Rapid repair of [[lacerations]]
+*Rapid repair of [[lacerations]]
-* Standard [[suture]] techniques
+*Standard [[suture]] techniques
-* [[Prophylaxis]] with [[antibiotics]] in [[anal sphincter]] injuries
+*[[Prophylaxis]] with [[antibiotics]] in [[anal sphincter]] injuries
 ===Secondary Prevention===
 There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of endometritis.
-== References ==
+==References==
 {{Reflist|2}}
 [[Category:Inflammations]]

Endometritis: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 07:54, 5 October 2020

Overview

Acute Endometritis

Chronic Endometritis

Pyometra

See also

Overview

Classification

Pyometra

Pathophysiology

Postpartum endometritis

Chronic Endometritis

Histopathology

Causes

Differentiating Endometritis from other Diseases

Epidemiology

Risk Factors

Screening

Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

Natural History

Complications

Prognosis

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Electrocardiogram

X-ray

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

CT scan

MRI

Other Imaging Findings

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Surgery

Primary Prevention

Secondary Prevention

References

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