Hypokalemia causes

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor-In-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2]; Aditya Govindavarjhulla, M.B.B.S. [3]; Assistant Editor(s)-In-Chief: Jack Khouri

Overview

The etiology of hypokalemia can be quite difficult to diagnose. As a matter of fact, many organ systems are involved in the regulation of potassium level and any derangement to their normal function can cause hypokalemia. Drugs, diarrhea, kidney disease, endocrine diseases and many others are potential culprits.

Causes

Hypokalemia can be the consequence of decreased ingestion, increased losses or transcellular shift from the extracellular to the intracellular compartment.

  • Perhaps the most obvious cause is insufficient consumption of potassium (that is, a low-potassium diet). However, without excessive potassium loss from the body, this is a rare cause of hypokalemia. Alcoholism, anorexia nervosa, dental problems and dysphagia can all impair food intake and cause hypokalemia. In the hospital setting, hypokalemia can present in patients on total parenteral nutrition or potassium-free IV fluids.
  • Excessive loss of potassium, often associated with excess water loss, which "flushes" potassium out of the body. Typically, this is a consequence of GI losses (vomiting and diarrhea), or excessive perspiration.
  • Increased urinary losses:
    • Certain medications can accelerate the removal of potassium from the body; including thiazide diuretics, such as hydrochlorothiazide; loop diuretics, such as furosemide; as well as various laxatives. The antifungal amphotericin B has also been associated with hypokalemia.
    • A special case of potassium loss occurs with diabetic ketoacidosis. In addition to urinary losses from polyuria and volume contraction, there is also obligate loss of potassium from kidney tubules as a cationic partner to the negatively charged ketone, β-hydroxybutyrate.
    • Hypomagnesemia can cause hypokalemia. Magnesium is required for adequate processing of potassium. This may become evident when hypokalemia persists despite potassium supplementation. Other electrolyte abnormalities may also be present.
    • Disease states that lead to abnormally high aldosterone levels can cause hypertension and excessive urinary losses of potassium. These include renal artery stenosis and tumors (generally non-malignant) of the adrenal glands. Hypertension and hypokalemia can also be seen with a deficiency of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme which allows cortisol to stimulate aldosterone receptors. This deficiency can either be congenital or caused by consumption of glycyrrhizin, which is contained in extract of licorice, sometimes found in Herbal supplements, candies and chewing tobacco.
    • Rare hereditary defects of renal salt transporters, such as Bartter syndrome or Gitelman syndrome can cause hypokalemia, in a manner similar to that of diuretics.
  • Transcellular potassium shift to the intracellular space:
    • Increased extracellular pH (each 0.11 unit increase in pH corresponds to a 0.4 meq/l decrease in potassium level)
    • Elevated insulin
    • Elevated beta-adrenergic activity (stress, beta-agonist intake, etc)
    • Rare hereditary defects of muscular ion channels and transporters that cause hypokalemic periodic paralysis can precipitate occasional attacks of severe hypokalemia and muscle weakness. These defects cause a heightened sensitivity to catechols and/or insulin and/or thyroid hormone that lead to sudden influx of potassium from the extracellular fluid into the muscle cells.
    • Hypothermia
    • Thyrotoxicosis
    • Theophylline
    • Rapid expansion of cell mass (eg, during refeeding after prolonged starvation, when patients with pernicious anemia are treated with vitamin B12 and with tumors having rapid cell turnover)

Common Causes

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Heart failure, Hypertension
Chemical / poisoning Ackee Fruit Food poisoning , Aloe poisoning , Amitraz , Cascara sagrada, Herbal Agent overdose , Mayapple poisoning , Organophosphates, Phenolphthalein
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect Ammonium Chloride , Amikacin, Aminophylline, Amphotericin B, Arsenic trioxide, Bendrofluazide, Bufotenine poisoning , Bumetanide, Calcium resonium, Carbenoxolone, Caspofungin, Cetuximab, Chlorothiazide, Chlortalidone, Clopamide, Corticosteroid medications, Cyclopenthiazide, Diuretic use, Etacrynic acid, Frusemide, Gentamicin, Glycyrrhizic acid, Hydrochlorothiazide, Hydroflumethiazide, Imatinib mesylate, Indapamide, Kanamycin, Lithium, Methyclothiazide, Metolazone, Netilmicin, Para amino salicylic acid, Penicillin, Polythiazide, Prednisolone, Reproterol, Ritodrine, Salbutamol, Tacrolimus, Thiazides, Toluene , Trichlormethiazide, Voriconazole
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Aldosteronism, Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, Cushing's Syndrome, Diabetes, Glucocorticoid resistance , Hyperaldosteronism, Primary aldosteronism, Secondary aldosteronism, SIADH, Thyrotoxicosis , VIPoma
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic Acute liver failure , Bowel fistulae, Bowel obstruction, Chloridorrhea, Colonic villous adenomata, Congenital chloride diarrhea , Diarrhea, Gastric fistula, Liver Cirrhosis
Genetic Cortisol 11 beta ketoreductase deficiency, Fanconi renotubular syndrome , Hypokalemic periodic paralysis , Liddle syndrome, Lightwood Albright syndrome
Hematologic Acute myeloid leukemia
Iatrogenic Insulin, IV fluids, Post operative , Sodium polystyrene sulfonate, Steroids, Ureterosigmoidostomy
Infectious Disease Diarrhea, Cholera , Pyelonephritis
Musculoskeletal / Ortho No underlying causes
Neurologic No underlying causes
Nutritional / Metabolic Acid Base Imbalance , Alcoholism, Alkalosis, Beer drinker syndrome , Diabetic ketoacidosis, Inadequate potassium in diet, Refeeding syndrome, Vomiting
Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic Acute myeloid leukemia, Functioning pancreatic endocrine tumor , Gastro enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor , Tumors
Opthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity Iodine overuse , Laxative abuse, Mineralocorticoid excess
Psychiatric Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia nervosa , Eating disorders
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal / Electrolyte Apparent mineralocorticoid excess , Chronic pyelonephritis, Bartter's syndrome, Classic Distal Renal Tubular Acidosis , Conn's Syndrome, Gitelman syndrome , Gullner Syndrome , Hyperreninemic Hypoaldosteronism , Hypokalaemic distal renal tubular acidosis, Hypomagnesemia, Liddle syndrome, Proximal renal tubular acidosis , Renal tubular acidosis , Sodium polystyrene sulfonate, Ureterosigmoidostomy, Urinary tract obstruction
Rheum / Immune / Allergy Sjogren's Syndrome
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma No underlying causes
Urologic No underlying causes
Dental No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Drip arm sample, Excessive sweating, Hypothermia

Causes in Alphabetical Order

References


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