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==Common Risk Factors==
==Common Risk Factors==
Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma, include:<ref>{{cite web | last =CDC | authorlink =Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title =1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 1986 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000837.htm | pmid =3097495 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite book | last =National Research Council | title =Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects | publisher =National Academy Press | date =1986 | url =http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=943#toc | isbn =0-309-07456-8 }}<br />* {{cite paper | author =EPA | authorlink=United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders | publisher =EPA | date =1992 | url =http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=2835 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =California Environmental Protection Agency | title =Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke | journal =Tobacco Control | volume =6 | issue =4 | pages =346–353 | date =1997 |url =http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | pmid =9583639 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =CDC | authorlink=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title =State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000 | journal =Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume =50 | issue =49 | pages =1101–1106 | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 2001 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5049a1.htm | pmid =11794619 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Alberg | first =AJ | coauthors =Samet JM | title =Epidemiology of lung cancer | journal =Chest | volume =123 | issue =S1 | pages =21S-49S | publisher =American College of Chest Physicians | date =Jan 2003 | url =http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/123/1_suppl/21S | pmid =12527563 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Boffetta">{{cite journal | last =Boffetta | first =P | coauthors = Agudo A, Ahrens W et al. | title =Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe | journal =Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume =90 | issue =19 | pages =1440–1450 | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =Oct 1998 | url =http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/90/19/1440 | pmid =9776409 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Committee">{{cite web | title =Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health | publisher =Department of Health |date =Mar 1998 | url =http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/tobacco/contents.htm | accessdate =2007-07-09 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Hackshaw | first =AK | title =Lung cancer and passive smoking | journal =Statistical Methods in Medical Research | volume =7 | issue =2 | pages =119–136 | date =Jun 1998 | pmid =9654638 }}</ref><ref name="NHMRC">{{cite paper | author =National Health and Medical Research Council | title =The health effects and regulation of passive smoking |publisher =Australian Government Publishing Service | date =Apr 1994 | url =http://www.obpr.gov.au/publications/submission/healthef/index.html | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma include:<ref>{{cite web | last =CDC | authorlink =Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title =1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 1986 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000837.htm | pmid =3097495 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite book | last =National Research Council | title =Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects | publisher =National Academy Press | date =1986 | url =http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=943#toc | isbn =0-309-07456-8 }}<br />* {{cite paper | author =EPA | authorlink=United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders | publisher =EPA | date =1992 | url =http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=2835 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =California Environmental Protection Agency | title =Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke | journal =Tobacco Control | volume =6 | issue =4 | pages =346–353 | date =1997 |url =http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | pmid =9583639 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =CDC | authorlink=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title =State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000 | journal =Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume =50 | issue =49 | pages =1101–1106 | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 2001 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5049a1.htm | pmid =11794619 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Alberg | first =AJ | coauthors =Samet JM | title =Epidemiology of lung cancer | journal =Chest | volume =123 | issue =S1 | pages =21S-49S | publisher =American College of Chest Physicians | date =Jan 2003 | url =http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/123/1_suppl/21S | pmid =12527563 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Boffetta">{{cite journal | last =Boffetta | first =P | coauthors = Agudo A, Ahrens W et al. | title =Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe | journal =Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume =90 | issue =19 | pages =1440–1450 | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =Oct 1998 | url =http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/90/19/1440 | pmid =9776409 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Committee">{{cite web | title =Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health | publisher =Department of Health |date =Mar 1998 | url =http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/tobacco/contents.htm | accessdate =2007-07-09 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Hackshaw | first =AK | title =Lung cancer and passive smoking | journal =Statistical Methods in Medical Research | volume =7 | issue =2 | pages =119–136 | date =Jun 1998 | pmid =9654638 }}</ref><ref name="NHMRC">{{cite paper | author =National Health and Medical Research Council | title =The health effects and regulation of passive smoking |publisher =Australian Government Publishing Service | date =Apr 1994 | url =http://www.obpr.gov.au/publications/submission/healthef/index.html | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
* Smoking
* Smoking
* Second-hand smoke
* Second-hand smoke
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*Both active and passive smoking are associated with increased risk of lung cancer
*Both active and passive smoking are associated with increased risk of lung cancer
*The risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung is associated with increased quantity of cigarette smoking as well as increased duration of smoking
*The risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung is associated with increased quantity of cigarette smoking as well as increased duration of smoking
*There is a direct correlation between the among of smoked cigarettes per day and the risk of lung cancer
*There is a direct correlation between the amount of smoked cigarettes per day and the risk of lung cancer
* The e-cigarrettes, have been associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of formaldehyde<ref name="pmid25607446">{{cite journal| author=Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH| title=Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2015 | volume= 372 | issue= 4 | pages= 392-4 | pmid=25607446 | doi=10.1056/NEJMc1413069 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25607446  }} </ref>
* The e-cigarrettes have also been associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of formaldehyde<ref name="pmid25607446">{{cite journal| author=Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH| title=Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2015 | volume= 372 | issue= 4 | pages= 392-4 | pmid=25607446 | doi=10.1056/NEJMc1413069 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25607446  }} </ref>
*In the United States, smoking is estimated to account for 87% of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung cases (90% in men and 85% in women)<ref name="Samet2">{{cite journal | last =Samet | first =JM | coauthors =Wiggins CL, Humble CG, Pathak DR | title =Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico | journal =American Review of Respiratory Disease | volume =137 | issue =5 | pages =1110–1113 | date =May 1988 | pmid =3264122 }}</ref>
*In the United States, smoking is estimated to account for approximately 87% of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung cases (90% in men and 85% in women)<ref name="Samet2">{{cite journal | last =Samet | first =JM | coauthors =Wiggins CL, Humble CG, Pathak DR | title =Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico | journal =American Review of Respiratory Disease | volume =137 | issue =5 | pages =1110–1113 | date =May 1988 | pmid =3264122 }}</ref>


'''Second-hand smoke'''
'''Second-hand smoke'''
* Second-hand smoke is what smokers exhale and what rises from a burning cigarette, pipe or cigar
* Also called environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), or involuntary or passive smoking<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
* People exposed to second-hand smoke have an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung  
* People exposed to second-hand smoke have an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung  
* Second-hand smoke is a main risk factor for  squamous cell carcinoma of the lung among non-smokers<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
* Second-hand smoke is a main risk factor for  squamous cell carcinoma of the lung among non-smokers<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>


'''Air Pollution'''
'''Air Pollution'''
*Emissions from automobiles, factories and power plants are thought to pose potential risks<ref name="Parent">{{cite journal | last =Parent | first =ME | coauthors = Rousseau MC, Boffetta P et al. | title =Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer | journal =American Journal of Epidemiology | volume =165 | issue =1 | pages =53–62 | date =Jan 2007 | pmid = 17062632 }}</ref>
*Emissions from automobiles, factories, and power plants are thought to pose potential risks for the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung<ref name="Parent">{{cite journal | last =Parent | first =ME | coauthors = Rousseau MC, Boffetta P et al. | title =Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer | journal =American Journal of Epidemiology | volume =165 | issue =1 | pages =53–62 | date =Jan 2007 | pmid = 17062632 }}</ref>
* Researchers have shown that individual components of outdoor air pollution cause cancer. These components include diesel engine exhaust, benzene, particulate matter and some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
* Individual components of outdoor air pollution, namely diesel engine exhaust, benzene, particulate matter and some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are associated with development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>


'''Family History of Lung Cancer'''
'''Family History of Lung Cancer'''


* Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
* Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
* First-degree relatives of people who have had lung cancer may have a slightly higher risk of developing lung cancer themselves.  
* First-degree relatives of individuals who have had lung cancer may have a slightly higher risk of developing lung cancer themselves.  
* The increased risk among first-degree relatives could be due to a number of factors, such as shared behaviors or living in the same place where there are carcinogens
* The increased risk among first-degree relatives could be due to a number of factors, such as shared behaviors or living in the same place where there are carcinogens
* Studies of families with a strong history of lung cancer have found that the increased risk might be due to a mutation in a lung cancer gene
* Studies of families with a strong history of lung cancer have found that the increased risk iis likely caused by a mutation in specific lung cancer genes
*Other studies have shown that the risk of lung cancer in a family increases if a family member developed the disease at an early age
*The risk of lung cancer in a family increases if one family member developed the disease at an early age


'''Radiation Therapy to the Chest'''
'''Radiation Therapy to the Chest'''
*A history of radiation therapy to the chest increases the risk of due to the development of cellular damage and DNA mutations
*A history of radiation therapy to the chest (e.g. Hodgkin's lymphoma or breast cancer) increases the risk of due to the development of cellular damage and DNA mutations
* The risk of squamous cell lung carcinoma increases for people who have had previous exposure to ionizing radiation
* People who have been treated with [[radiation therapy]] to the chest for cancers such as [[Hodgkin lymphoma]] or [[breast cancer]] are at increased risk for lung cancer


'''Radon Exposure'''
'''Radon Exposure'''
*Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung in smokers
*Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung in smokers
* Radon is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that comes from the natural breakdown of uranium in rocks and soil. In the outdoors, radon gas is diluted by fresh air, so it is not usually a concern. But radon can seep into a home or building through dirt floors or cracks in basement foundations. It may reach unsafe levels in enclosed, poorly ventilated homes or buildings because of seepage into the basement. Breathing in radon gas can damage cells that line the lungs
* Radon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that comes from the natural breakdown of uranium in rocks and soil. In the outdoors, radon gas is diluted by fresh air, so it is not usually a concern. But radon can seep into a home or building through dirt floors or cracks in basement foundations. It may reach unsafe concentrations in enclosed, poorly ventilated homes or buildings because of seepage into the basement. Breathing in radon gas can damage cells that line the lungs
* Radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer  
* Radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer  
* The risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma of the lung depends on how much radon a person is exposed to, how long they are exposed
* The risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma of the lung depends on the duration and quantity of radon a person has been exposed to.


'''Asbestos Exposure'''
'''Asbestos Exposure'''
* Asbestos is group of minerals that occur naturally. Asbestos has been widely used in building materials and many industries
* Asbestos is a group of minerals that occur naturally. Asbestos has been widely used in building materials and many industries
* Exposure to asbestos fibres in the air that people breathe increases the risk of lung cancer<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
* Exposure to asbestos fibers in the air increases the risk of lung cancer<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref>
* The risk of asbestos exposure is highest for people who work with asbestos, such as miners or those who work with it in manufacturing
* The risk of asbestos exposure is highest for individuals who work with asbestos, such as miners
* Studies have shown that the combination of smoking and asbestos exposure is especially hazardous
* The combination of smoking and asbestos exposure is especially hazardous


'''Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens'''
'''Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens'''

Revision as of 19:22, 25 April 2016

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Shanshan Cen, M.D. [2] Maria Fernanda Villarreal, M.D. [3]

Overview

Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung are smoking, family history of lung cancer, high levels of air pollution, radiation therapy to the chest, radon gas, asbestos, occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens, and previous lung disease.[1]

Common Risk Factors

Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma include:[2][3][4][5][6]

  • Smoking
  • Second-hand smoke
  • Family history of lung cancer
  • High levels of air pollution
  • Radiation therapy to the chest
  • Radon gas
  • Asbestos
  • High levels of arsenic in drinking water
  • Occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens
  • Previous lung disease
  • Indoor burning of coal
  • Weakened immune system
  • Lupus

Smoking

  • Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung
  • Both active and passive smoking are associated with increased risk of lung cancer
  • The risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung is associated with increased quantity of cigarette smoking as well as increased duration of smoking
  • There is a direct correlation between the amount of smoked cigarettes per day and the risk of lung cancer
  • The e-cigarrettes have also been associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of formaldehyde[7]
  • In the United States, smoking is estimated to account for approximately 87% of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung cases (90% in men and 85% in women)[8]

Second-hand smoke

  • People exposed to second-hand smoke have an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung
  • Second-hand smoke is a main risk factor for squamous cell carcinoma of the lung among non-smokers[9]

Air Pollution

  • Emissions from automobiles, factories, and power plants are thought to pose potential risks for the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung[10]
  • Individual components of outdoor air pollution, namely diesel engine exhaust, benzene, particulate matter and some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are associated with development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.[11]

Family History of Lung Cancer

  • Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung[12]
  • First-degree relatives of individuals who have had lung cancer may have a slightly higher risk of developing lung cancer themselves.
  • The increased risk among first-degree relatives could be due to a number of factors, such as shared behaviors or living in the same place where there are carcinogens
  • Studies of families with a strong history of lung cancer have found that the increased risk iis likely caused by a mutation in specific lung cancer genes
  • The risk of lung cancer in a family increases if one family member developed the disease at an early age

Radiation Therapy to the Chest

  • A history of radiation therapy to the chest (e.g. Hodgkin's lymphoma or breast cancer) increases the risk of due to the development of cellular damage and DNA mutations

Radon Exposure

  • Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung in smokers
  • Radon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that comes from the natural breakdown of uranium in rocks and soil. In the outdoors, radon gas is diluted by fresh air, so it is not usually a concern. But radon can seep into a home or building through dirt floors or cracks in basement foundations. It may reach unsafe concentrations in enclosed, poorly ventilated homes or buildings because of seepage into the basement. Breathing in radon gas can damage cells that line the lungs
  • Radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer
  • The risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma of the lung depends on the duration and quantity of radon a person has been exposed to.

Asbestos Exposure

  • Asbestos is a group of minerals that occur naturally. Asbestos has been widely used in building materials and many industries
  • Exposure to asbestos fibers in the air increases the risk of lung cancer[13]
  • The risk of asbestos exposure is highest for individuals who work with asbestos, such as miners
  • The combination of smoking and asbestos exposure is especially hazardous

Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens

  • Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
  • Beryllium and beryllium compounds
  • Cadmium and cadmium compounds
  • Chemicals used in rubber manufacturing, iron and steel founding and painting
  • Chloromethyl ethers and bischloromethylether
  • Chromium (VI) compounds
  • Cobalt-tungsten carbide
  • Diesel engine exhaust
  • Mustard gas
  • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
  • Radioactive ores such as uranium and plutonium
  • Silica dust and crystalline silica
  • Some nickel compounds

References

  1. ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
  2. ↑ CDC (Dec 1986). "1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking". CDC. PMID 3097495. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
    * National Research Council (1986). Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects. National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-07456-8.
    * Template:Cite paper
    * California Environmental Protection Agency (1997). "Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke". Tobacco Control. 6 (4): 346–353. PMID 9583639. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
    * CDC (Dec 2001). "State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. CDC. 50 (49): 1101–1106. PMID 11794619. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
    * Alberg, AJ (Jan 2003). "Epidemiology of lung cancer". Chest. American College of Chest Physicians. 123 (S1): 21S–49S. PMID 12527563. Retrieved 2007-08-10. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Boffetta, P (Oct 1998). "Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Oxford University Press. 90 (19): 1440–1450. PMID 9776409. Retrieved 2007-08-10. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ "Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health". Department of Health. Mar 1998. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
    * Hackshaw, AK (Jun 1998). "Lung cancer and passive smoking". Statistical Methods in Medical Research. 7 (2): 119–136. PMID 9654638.
  5. ↑ Template:Cite paper
  6. ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
  7. ↑ Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH (2015). "Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols". N Engl J Med. 372 (4): 392–4. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1413069. PMID 25607446.
  8. ↑ Samet, JM (May 1988). "Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico". American Review of Respiratory Disease. 137 (5): 1110–1113. PMID 3264122. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  9. ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
  10. ↑ Parent, ME (Jan 2007). "Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer". American Journal of Epidemiology. 165 (1): 53–62. PMID 17062632. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
  12. ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
  13. ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution


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