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{{Aspiration pneumonia}}
{{Aspiration pneumonia}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}
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==Overview==
==Overview==
There are different approaches for different classes of aspiration pneumonia. [[Pneumonitis]] and [[Infection|bacterial infection]] require [[Antibiotic|antibiotic therapy]], while [[foreign body]] aspiration and mechanical [[obstruction]] may need invasive interventions. [[Chemical pneumonitis]] must be treated supportively. Immediate clearing of the [[respiratory tract]] from aspirated material and fluid by [[suction]] must be the first step if the diagnosis of aspiration is definite. Pharmacologic medical therapy for aspiration pneumonia includes [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]] such as [[Ampicillin-Sulbactam|ampicillin-sulbactam]], [[Amoxicillin-Clavulanate|amoxicillin-clavulanate]], or [[clindamycin]] for 7 days. Alternative regimens include combination of [[metronidazole]] with [[Penicillin G benzathine|penicillin G]], [[amoxicillin]], [[ceftriaxone]], or [[Cefotaxime sodium|cefotaxime]]. [[Positive pressure ventilation]] with 100% [[oxygen]] to support [[Lung|pulmonary]] function is sometimes required.
==Medical Therapy==
==Medical Therapy==
Management of patients with swallowing dysfunction is highly individualized based on the cause of the dysfunction and other patient characteristics identified by the multidisciplinary evaluation outlined above.
*There are different pharmacologic approaches for different classes of aspiration pneumonia. [[Pneumonitis]] and [[Infection|bacterial infection]] require [[Antibiotic|antibiotic therapy]], while [[foreign body]] aspiration and mechanical [[obstruction]] may need invasive interventions.<ref name="DiBardinoWunderink2015">{{cite journal|last1=DiBardino|first1=David M.|last2=Wunderink|first2=Richard G.|title=Aspiration pneumonia: A review of modern trends|journal=Journal of Critical Care|volume=30|issue=1|year=2015|pages=40–48|issn=08839441|doi=10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.07.011}}</ref><ref name="HuLee2015">{{cite journal|last1=Hu|first1=Xiaowen|last2=Lee|first2=Joyce S.|last3=Pianosi|first3=Paolo T.|last4=Ryu|first4=Jay H.|title=Aspiration-Related Pulmonary Syndromes|journal=Chest|volume=147|issue=3|year=2015|pages=815–823|issn=00123692|doi=10.1378/chest.14-1049}}</ref><ref name="Marik20012">{{cite journal|last1=Marik|first1=Paul E.|title=Aspiration Pneumonitis and Aspiration Pneumonia|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=344|issue=9|year=2001|pages=665–671|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJM200103013440908}}</ref><ref name="pmid19857224">{{cite journal| author=Japanese Respiratory Society| title=Aspiration pneumonia. | journal=Respirology | year= 2009 | volume= 14 Suppl 2 | issue=  | pages= S59-64 | pmid=19857224 | doi=10.1111/j.1440-1843.2009.01578.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19857224  }}</ref><ref name="pmid23052002">{{cite journal| author=Almirall J, Cabré M, Clavé P| title=Complications of oropharyngeal dysphagia: aspiration pneumonia. | journal=Nestle Nutr Inst Workshop Ser | year= 2012 | volume= 72 | issue=  | pages= 67-76 | pmid=23052002 | doi=10.1159/000339989 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23052002  }}</ref><ref name="pmid9925081">{{cite journal| author=Marik PE, Careau P| title=The role of anaerobes in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia and aspiration pneumonia: a prospective study. | journal=Chest | year= 1999 | volume= 115 | issue= 1 | pages= 178-83 | pmid=9925081 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9925081  }}</ref>
 
*[[Chemical pneumonitis]] must be treated supportively. Immediate clearing the [[respiratory tract]] from aspirated material and fluid by [[suction]] must be the first step if the diagnosis of aspiration is definite.
If there are primary anatomical abnormalities that predispose to aspiration, these should be surgically corrected, if possible. Total parenteral nutrition or nasogastric tube feeding may be necessary to safely meet caloric requirements during the recovery period after corrective surgery. The same methods for nutritional support should be considered when the patient's swallowing dysfunction is secondary to a transient disease, such as a critical illness.
*Pharmacologic medical therapy for aspiration pneumonia includes [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]] such as [[Ampicillin-Sulbactam|ampicillin-sulbactam]], [[Amoxicillin-Clavulanate|amoxicillin-clavulanate]], or [[clindamycin]] for 7 days.  
 
*Alternative regimens include combination of [[metronidazole]] with [[Penicillin G benzathine|penicillin G]], [[amoxicillin]], [[ceftriaxone]], or [[Cefotaxime sodium|cefotaxime]].
'''Feeding decisions'''
*[[Positive pressure ventilation]] with 100% [[oxygen]] to support [[Lung|pulmonary]] function is sometimes required.
 
===Aspiration pneumonia===
The goals of therapy are safe and efficient nutrition that preserves stable respiratory function and appropriate growth. Oral feeding, while always desirable, is not always the most reasonable goal for patients with severe swallowing dysfunction because the risks of oral feeding may outweigh the psychosocial benefits to the patient and family [6,37,38]. On the other hand, for some patients with severe static encephalopathy or global delays, the family may choose to maintain oral feeds for pleasure despite the known risks of aspiration and pulmonary injury. These considerations require a clear and detailed discussion of goals and risks between the family and clinicians [39].
 
'''Techniques to enhance oral feeding'''
 
In children with functional abnormalities, treatment is often led by speech and occupational therapists that specialize in swallowing. The specialist selects specific techniques to improve swallowing function based on individual patient characteristics:
 
●In infants, change in the flow of liquids may significantly improve swallowing. These changes can be made by changing to a slow flow nipple.
 
●Other feeding techniques include changes in the infant or child's position and posture during feeding, modification of bolus size, and alterations of consistency, shape, texture, and temperature of food. These techniques should be selected based on the result of the videofluoroscopic swallowing study (VFSS) or fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES) (image 1) [3,40].
 
●In children with delayed maturation, swallowing function may improve over time. In the interim, the techniques outlined above are used to support adequate nutrition and avoid aspiration. The type of feeding is then gradually advanced as the infant or child matures. Advances in feeding may be directed by repeat swallowing evaluation, including clinical assessment of feeding, with or without VFSS or FEES.
 
'''Gastrostomy feeds'''
 
Percutaneous gastrostomy tube placement should be considered for patients who are unable to safely consume enough calories by mouth. Some patients will require gastrostomy tubes to meet part or all of their nutritional needs. Oral-motor and swallowing therapy should be continued in patients in whom swallowing function is expected to improve, and gastrostomy tubes may be removed when no longer necessary.
 
Parents may initially be reluctant to have a gastrostomy tube placed because of concerns about losing pleasure of eating, discomfort, or cosmesis. The importance of preventing pulmonary aspiration, long-term benefits of improved nutrition, and reversibility of this procedure should be emphasized. In addition, gastrostomy tubes can be useful for administering medication and fluid, when needed.
 
General considerations about gastrostomy placement and enteral feeding are discussed in a separate topic review.
 
'''Management of salivary aspiration'''
 
Management techniques for patients with suspected salivary aspiration include:
 
●Providing small quantities ("tastes") of liquid or food, to assist purposeful swallowing and reduce the risk of aspiration from pooled saliva.
 
●Administration of anticholinergic agents, such as glycopyrrolate or scopolamine patches to inhibit salivation. (See "Management and prognosis of cerebral palsy", section on 'Drooling'.)
 
●Botulinum toxin injections to decrease salivation. (See "Management and prognosis of cerebral palsy", section on 'Drooling'.)
 
●Surgical removal of salivary glands or salivary duct ligation has had a beneficial effect in some individuals, although these surgeries are not without risk. (See "Management and prognosis of cerebral palsy", section on 'Drooling'.)
 
●In very rare instances, laryngotracheal separation with a permanent tracheostomy may be indicated.
 
Surgical approaches should be approached with caution because it is often difficult to predict whether or not these procedures will improve pulmonary symptoms.
 
'''Management of gastroesophageal reflux'''
 
Patients with swallowing dysfunction, especially those with neurologic impairment, may have increased frequency and volume of gastroesophageal reflux (GER).


Most patients with mild GER can be effectively managed without fundoplication, using dietary modification and positioning to reduce the frequency of GER, pharmacotherapy for acid suppression, and occasionally prokinetic agents.
* '''1 Chemical pneumonitis'''
** 1.1 '''Adult'''
*** Preferred regimen (1): [[Ampicillin-Sulbactam|Ampicillin-sulbactam]] 1.5-3 g IV q6h for 7 days
*** Preferred regimen (2): [[Amoxicillin-Clavulanate|Amoxicillin-clavulanate]] 875 mg PO q12h for 7 days
*** Preferred regimen (3): High molecular weight colloids IV
*** Alternative regimen (1): [[Clindamycin]] 600 mg IV q8h (for [[Penicillin allergy|penicillin allergic]] patients) for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (2): [[Metronidazole]] 500 mg PO or IV q8h <u>'''AND'''</u> [[Penicillin G benzathine|penicillin G]] 1-2 million units IV q4-6h for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (3): [[Metronidazole]] 500 mg PO or IV q8h <u>'''AND'''</u> [[amoxicillin]] 500 mg PO q8h for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (4): [[Metronidazole]] 500 mg PO or IV q8h <u>'''AND'''</u> [[ceftriaxone]] 1-2 g IV qd for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (5): [[Metronidazole]] 500 mg PO or IV q8h <u>'''AND'''</u> [[Cefotaxime sodium|cefotaxime]] 1-2 g IV q8h for 7 days
::'''Note (1):''' Immediate clearing of the [[respiratory tract]] from aspirated material and fluid by suction must be the first step if the diagnosis of aspiration is definite.  


'''Fundoplication'''
::'''Note (2):''' [[Positive pressure ventilation]] with 100% [[oxygen]] to support [[Lung|pulmonary]] function is sometimes required.


Fundoplication is a surgical procedure to reduce the risk of GER. It should be considered only in patients with GER that is strongly suspected to be contributing to pulmonary disease. When evaluating the severity of GER, a gastroenterologist classically focuses on the percent of time that gastric contents spend in the esophagus, which correlate with the risk for peptic esophagitis. From a pulmonary point of view, the number and duration of episodes may be less important than whether the reflux occurs during sleep, when the patient is horizontal and less likely to protect the larynx. Clinical judgment must be applied to individual patients when judging whether they are likely to benefit from fundoplication. Complications after fundoplication include retching, esophageal obstruction, intrathoracic herniation, and recurrence of GER due to breakdown of the wrap. Complications of fundoplication are most common in patients with neurologic impairment [42,43]. Failure rates (variously defined) of antireflux surgery range from 2 to 50 percent and are generally higher in children with neurological impairment [44].  
:::'''Note (3):''' The use of [[glucocorticoids]] for aspiration pneumonia is controversial.  
* '''2 Bacterial infection'''
** 2.1 '''Adult'''
*** Preferred regimen (1):[[Ampicillin-Sulbactam|Ampicillin-sulbactam]] 1.5-3 g IV q6h for 7 days
*** Preferred regimen (2): [[Amoxicillin-Clavulanate|Amoxicillin-clavulanate]] 875 mg PO q12h for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (1): [[Clindamycin]] 600 mg IV q8h (for [[Penicillin allergy|penicillin allergic]] patients) for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (2): [[Metronidazole]] 500 mg PO or IV q8h '''AND''' [[Penicillin G benzathine|penicillin G]] 1-2 million units IV q4-6h for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (3): [[Metronidazole]] 500 mg PO or IV q8h '''AND''' [[amoxicillin]] 500 mg PO q8h for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (4): [[Metronidazole]] 500 mg PO or IV q8h '''AND''' [[ceftriaxone]] 1-2 g IV qd for 7 days
*** Alternative regimen (5): [[Metronidazole]] 500 mg PO or IV q8h '''AND''' [[Cefotaxime sodium|cefotaxime]] 1-2 g IV q8h for 7 days
***
'''For pneumonia medical therapy, click [[Pneumonia medical therapy|here]].'''


'''Jejunal feeds'''
'''For lung abscess medical therapy, click [[Lung abscess medical therapy|here]].'''


For patients with GER who are dependent on enteral feeds, an alternate strategy to reduce GER and the associated risks of aspiration is to place the feeding tube in the jejunum rather than in the stomach; this tends to reduce but not eliminate GER. Disadvantages of jejunal feeds include intolerance of rapid feeding infusions (such that continuous rather than bolus feeds must be used), and a tendency for accidental displacement (except with permanent, surgically placed jejunal tubes). A retrospective study in a group of children with neurological impairment found that the rates of aspiration pneumonia and mortality were similar among those treated with jejunal feeding as compared with those treated with fundoplication [45].
'''For pleural empyema medical therapy, click [[Pleural empyema medical therapy|here]].'''
**
*****


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 23:32, 29 April 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sadaf Sharfaei M.D.[2]

Overview

There are different approaches for different classes of aspiration pneumonia. Pneumonitis and bacterial infection require antibiotic therapy, while foreign body aspiration and mechanical obstruction may need invasive interventions. Chemical pneumonitis must be treated supportively. Immediate clearing of the respiratory tract from aspirated material and fluid by suction must be the first step if the diagnosis of aspiration is definite. Pharmacologic medical therapy for aspiration pneumonia includes antibiotics such as ampicillin-sulbactam, amoxicillin-clavulanate, or clindamycin for 7 days. Alternative regimens include combination of metronidazole with penicillin G, amoxicillin, ceftriaxone, or cefotaxime. Positive pressure ventilation with 100% oxygen to support pulmonary function is sometimes required.

Medical Therapy

Aspiration pneumonia

Note (1): Immediate clearing of the respiratory tract from aspirated material and fluid by suction must be the first step if the diagnosis of aspiration is definite.
Note (2): Positive pressure ventilation with 100% oxygen to support pulmonary function is sometimes required.
Note (3): The use of glucocorticoids for aspiration pneumonia is controversial.

For pneumonia medical therapy, click here.

For lung abscess medical therapy, click here.

For pleural empyema medical therapy, click here.

References

  1. ↑ DiBardino, David M.; Wunderink, Richard G. (2015). "Aspiration pneumonia: A review of modern trends". Journal of Critical Care. 30 (1): 40–48. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.07.011. ISSN 0883-9441.
  2. ↑ Hu, Xiaowen; Lee, Joyce S.; Pianosi, Paolo T.; Ryu, Jay H. (2015). "Aspiration-Related Pulmonary Syndromes". Chest. 147 (3): 815–823. doi:10.1378/chest.14-1049. ISSN 0012-3692.
  3. ↑ Marik, Paul E. (2001). "Aspiration Pneumonitis and Aspiration Pneumonia". New England Journal of Medicine. 344 (9): 665–671. doi:10.1056/NEJM200103013440908. ISSN 0028-4793.
  4. ↑ Japanese Respiratory Society (2009). "Aspiration pneumonia". Respirology. 14 Suppl 2: S59–64. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1843.2009.01578.x. PMID 19857224.
  5. ↑ Almirall J, Cabré M, Clavé P (2012). "Complications of oropharyngeal dysphagia: aspiration pneumonia". Nestle Nutr Inst Workshop Ser. 72: 67–76. doi:10.1159/000339989. PMID 23052002.
  6. ↑ Marik PE, Careau P (1999). "The role of anaerobes in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia and aspiration pneumonia: a prospective study". Chest. 115 (1): 178–83. PMID 9925081.

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