Neurosyphilis differential diagnosis: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
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{{Neurosyphilis}}
{{Neurosyphilis}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}{{MMJ}}{{TarekNafee}}


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==Overview==
 
Neurosyphilis must be differentiated from other diseases that cause abnormal [[gait]], [[Blindness]], [[confusion]] and [[depression]], such as [[multiple sclerosis]], [[Brain tumour]]<nowiki/>s, [[Wernicke's encephalopathy|Wernicke’s encephalopathy]], [[CNS abscess]], [[electrolyte disturbance]], [[Subdural empyema]], [[Subarachnoid hemorrhage|subarachnoid hemorrhage]], [[Stroke|brain stroke]], [[Conversion disorder]] and [[Drug toxicity]].
 


==Differentiating X from other Diseases==
* Neuroyphilis has an extensive differential diagnosis.


*Neurosyphilis must be differentiated from other diseases that cause abnormal [[gait]], [[Blindness]], [[confusion]] and [[depression]], such as [[multiple sclerosis]], [[Brain tumour]]<nowiki/>s, [[Wernicke's encephalopathy|Wernicke’s encephalopathy]], [[CNS abscess]], [[electrolyte disturbance]], [[Subdural empyema]], [[Subarachnoid hemorrhage|subarachnoid  hemorrhage]], [[Stroke|brain stroke]], [[Conversion disorder]] and [[Drug toxicity]].<nowiki/><nowiki/><ref name="pmid1278192" /><ref name="pmid3883130" /><ref name="pmid22482824" /><ref name="pmid24365430" /><ref name="pmid22421697" /><ref name="pmid21807345" /><ref name="pmid21371327" /><ref name="pmid14585453" /><ref name="pmid1198628" /><ref name="pmid22605909">{{cite journal| author=Goldenberg MM| title=Multiple sclerosis review. | journal=P T | year= 2012 | volume= 37 | issue= 3 | pages= 175-84 | pmid=22605909 | doi= | pmc=3351877 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22605909  }} </ref>
{|
{|
|-style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |<small>Diseases</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>Diseases</small>
! colspan="4" |<small>Diagnostic tests</small>
! colspan="4" |<small>Diagnostic tests</small>
Line 30: Line 32:
!<small>Altered mental status</small>
!<small>Altered mental status</small>
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | [[Brain tumour]]<ref name="pmid1278192">Soffer D (1976) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1278192 Brain tumors simulating purulent meningitis.] ''Eur Neurol'' 14 (3):192-7. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/1278192 1278192]</ref><ref name="pmid3883130" />
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Neurosyphilis]]<ref name="pmid22482824">{{cite journal| author=Liu LL, Zheng WH, Tong ML, Liu GL, Zhang HL, Fu ZG et al.| title=Ischemic stroke as a primary symptom of neurosyphilis among HIV-negative emergency patients. | journal=J Neurol Sci | year= 2012 | volume= 317 | issue= 1-2 | pages= 35-9 | pmid=22482824 | doi=10.1016/j.jns.2012.03.003 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22482824  }} </ref><ref name="pmid24365430">{{cite journal |vauthors=Berger JR, Dean D |title=Neurosyphilis |journal=Handb Clin Neurol |volume=121 |issue= |pages=1461–72 |year=2014 |pmid=24365430 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-7020-4088-7.00098-5 |url=}}</ref>
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px text-align:center" |Cancer cells<ref name="pmid21371327">{{cite journal| author=Weston CL, Glantz MJ, Connor JR| title=Detection of cancer cells in the cerebrospinal fluid: current methods and future directions. | journal=Fluids Barriers CNS | year= 2011 | volume= 8 | issue= 1 | pages= 14 | pmid=21371327 | doi=10.1186/2045-8118-8-14 | pmc=3059292 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21371327  }}</ref>
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |'''↑''' [[Leukocytes]] and [[protein]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |MRI  
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* CSF [[VDRL]]-specifc
 
* CSF FTA-Ab -sensitive<ref name="pmid22421697">{{cite journal| author=Ho EL, Marra CM| title=Treponemal tests for neurosyphilis--less accurate than what we thought? | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2012 | volume= 39 | issue= 4 | pages= 298-9 | pmid=22421697 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31824ee574 | pmc=3746559 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22421697  }}</ref>
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Unprotected sexual intercourse, [[STI]]<nowiki/>s
* History of multiple sexual partners.
 
* History of [[genital ulcer]] ([[chancre]])
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Blindness]]
* [[confusion]],
* [[depression|epression]],
 
* Abnormal [[gait]]
|-
|[[Multiple sclerosis]]
|
|
|[[Oligoclonal band|Oligoclonal bands of IgG]] on [[electrophoresis]] of [[cerebrospinal fluid]]
|MRI
|✔
|✔
|
|
|✔
|✔
|
|✔
|
* History of [[fatigue]]
* Mood problems
* [[Spasticity]]
* [[Bowel]] and [[bladder]] dysfunction
|
*[[Vision problems]]
*[[Balance disorder|Balance problems]]
*[[Dizziness]]
*Areas of [[demyelination]] in [[CNS]] [[MRI]]
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | [[Brain tumour]]<ref name="pmid1278192">Soffer D (1976) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1278192 Brain tumors simulating purulent meningitis.] ''Eur Neurol'' 14 (3):192-7. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/1278192 1278192]</ref><ref name="pmid3883130" />
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px text-align:center" |Cancer cells<ref name="pmid21371327">{{cite journal| author=Weston CL, Glantz MJ, Connor JR| title=Detection of cancer cells in the cerebrospinal fluid: current methods and future directions. | journal=Fluids Barriers CNS | year= 2011 | volume= 8 | issue= 1 | pages= 14 | pmid=21371327 | doi=10.1186/2045-8118-8-14 | pmc=3059292 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21371327  }}</ref>
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |MRI  
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |       
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |       
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |      ✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |      ✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Cachexia]], gradual progression of symptoms
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Cachexia]]
* Gradual progression of symptoms
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Wernicke’s encephalopathy
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Normal
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of alcohal abuse
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Ophthalmoplegia]]
* [[confusion]]
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[CNS abscess]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* '''↑''' [[leukocytes]] >100,000/ul
 
* '''↓''' [[glucose]] and '''↑''' protien
* '''↑''' red blood cells
* [[lactic acid]] >500mg
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Contrast enhanced MRI is more sensitive and specific
 
* [[Histopathological]] examination of brain tissue
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* History of [[drug abuse]]
* [[endocarditis]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* High grade [[fever]]
* F[[fatigue|atigue]]
* N[[Nausea and vomiting|ausea]]
* [[vomiting]]
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Electrolyte disturbance]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |'''↓''' or '''↑'''
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Depends on the cause
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Confusion]]
* S[[Seizure|eizures]]
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Delirium tremens]]
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Subdural empyema]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Clinical assesment and [[MRI]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of relapses and remissions
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Blurry vision
 
* [[urinary incontinence]]
* F[[fatigue|atigue]]
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Delirium tremens]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Clinical diagnosis
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Clinical diagnosis
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |      ✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |      ✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" | ✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" | ✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Alcohol]] intake, sudden witdrawl or reduction in consumption  
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Tachycardia]], [[diaphoresis]], [[hypertension]], [[tremors]], [[mydriasis]], [[positional nystagmus]],  
* [[Alcohol]] intake
* Sudden withdraw or reduction in consumption
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Tachycardia]]
 
* [[diaphoresis]]
* [[hypertension]]  
* [[tremors]],
* [[mydriasis]]
* [[positional nystagmus|Positional Nystagmus]],
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | [[Subarachnoid hemorrhage|Subarachnoid  hemorrhage]]<ref name="pmid14585453">Yeh ST, Lee WJ, Lin HJ, Chen CY, Te AL, Lin HJ (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14585453 Nonaneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage secondary to tuberculous meningitis: report of two cases.] ''J Emerg Med'' 25 (3):265-70. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/14585453 14585453]</ref>
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | [[Subarachnoid hemorrhage|Subarachnoid  hemorrhage]]<ref name="pmid14585453">Yeh ST, Lee WJ, Lin HJ, Chen CY, Te AL, Lin HJ (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14585453 Nonaneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage secondary to tuberculous meningitis: report of two cases.] ''J Emerg Med'' 25 (3):265-70. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/14585453 14585453]</ref>


|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Xanthochromia<ref name="pmid1198628">{{cite journal| author=Lee MC, Heaney LM, Jacobson RL, Klassen AC| title=Cerebrospinal fluid in cerebral hemorrhage and infarction. | journal=Stroke | year= 1975 | volume= 6 | issue= 6 | pages= 638-41 | pmid=1198628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1198628  }}</ref>
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Xanthochromia<ref name="pmid1198628">{{cite journal| author=Lee MC, Heaney LM, Jacobson RL, Klassen AC| title=Cerebrospinal fluid in cerebral hemorrhage and infarction. | journal=Stroke | year= 1975 | volume= 6 | issue= 6 | pages= 638-41 | pmid=1198628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1198628  }}</ref>
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |CT scan  without contrast<ref name="pmid21694755">{{cite journal| author=Birenbaum D, Bancroft LW, Felsberg GJ| title=Imaging in acute stroke. | journal=West J Emerg Med | year= 2011 | volume= 12 | issue= 1 | pages= 67-76 | pmid=21694755 | doi= | pmc=3088377 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21694755  }}</ref><ref name="pmid21807345">{{cite journal| author=DeLaPaz RL, Wippold FJ, Cornelius RS, Amin-Hanjani S, Angtuaco EJ, Broderick DF et al.| title=ACR Appropriateness Criteria® on cerebrovascular disease. | journal=J Am Coll Radiol | year= 2011 | volume= 8 | issue= 8 | pages= 532-8 | pmid=21807345 | doi=10.1016/j.jacr.2011.05.010 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21807345  }}</ref>
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |CT scan  without contrast<ref name="pmid21694755">{{cite journal| author=Birenbaum D, Bancroft LW, Felsberg GJ| title=Imaging in acute stroke. | journal=West J Emerg Med | year= 2011 | volume= 12 | issue= 1 | pages= 67-76 | pmid=21694755 | doi= | pmc=3088377 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21694755  }}</ref><ref name="pmid21807345">{{cite journal| author=DeLaPaz RL, Wippold FJ, Cornelius RS, Amin-Hanjani S, Angtuaco EJ, Broderick DF et al.| title=ACR Appropriateness Criteria® on cerebrovascular disease. | journal=J Am Coll Radiol | year= 2011 | volume= 8 | issue= 8 | pages= 532-8 | pmid=21807345 | doi=10.1016/j.jacr.2011.05.010 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21807345  }}</ref>
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
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|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |    ✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |    ✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Trauma/fall
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Trauma/fall
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Confusion]], [[dizziness]], [[Nausea and vomiting|nausea]], [[Nausea and vomiting|vomiting]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Confusion]]
* [[dizziness]]
* [[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]]
* [[Nausea and vomiting|Vomiting]]
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | [[Stroke]]
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | [[Stroke]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"| Normal
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" | Normal
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"| CT scan  without contrast
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" | CT scan  without contrast
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|TIAs, [[hypertension]], [[diabetes mellitus]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |TIAs, [[hypertension]], [[diabetes mellitus]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center"|Speech difficulty, gait abnormality
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
* Speech difficulty
* Gait abnormality
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Neurosyphilis]]<ref name="pmid22482824">{{cite journal| author=Liu LL, Zheng WH, Tong ML, Liu GL, Zhang HL, Fu ZG et al.| title=Ischemic stroke as a primary symptom of neurosyphilis among HIV-negative emergency patients. | journal=J Neurol Sci | year= 2012 | volume= 317 | issue= 1-2 | pages= 35-9 | pmid=22482824 | doi=10.1016/j.jns.2012.03.003 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22482824  }} </ref><ref name="pmid24365430">{{cite journal |vauthors=Berger JR, Dean D |title=Neurosyphilis |journal=Handb Clin Neurol |volume=121 |issue= |pages=1461–72 |year=2014 |pmid=24365430 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-7020-4088-7.00098-5 |url=}}</ref>
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Viral encephalitis]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |'''↑''' [[Leukocytes]] and [[protein]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |CSF [[VDRL]]-specifc
* Increased [[RBC]]S or xanthochromia
CSF FTA-Ab -sensitive<ref name="pmid22421697">{{cite journal| author=Ho EL, Marra CM| title=Treponemal tests for neurosyphilis--less accurate than what we thought? | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2012 | volume= 39 | issue= 4 | pages= 298-9 | pmid=22421697 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31824ee574 | pmc=3746559 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22421697  }}</ref>
* [[Mononuclear cells|Mononuclear]] [[lymphocytosis]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
* High protein content
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
* Normal [[glucose]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Clinical assesment
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Unprotected sexual intercourse, [[STI]]<nowiki/>s
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Blindness]], [[confusion]], [[depression]],
 
Abnormal [[gait]]
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Viral encephalitis]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Increased [[RBC]]S or xanthochromia, [[Mononuclear cells|mononuclear]] [[lymphocytosis]], high protein content, normal [[glucose]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Clinical assesment
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |    ✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |    ✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Tick bite/mosquito bite/ viral prodome for several days
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Extreme lethargy, rash [[hepatosplenomegaly]], [[lymphadenopathy]], [[behavioural]] changes
* Tick bite
* Mosquito bite
* Viral prodome for several days
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Extreme lethargy
* Rash
* [[hepatosplenomegaly]]
* [[lymphadenopathy]]
* [[behavioural]] changes
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Herpes simplex encephalitis]]
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Herpes simplex encephalitis]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Clinical assesment
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Clinical assesment
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of [[hypertension]]  
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of [[hypertension]]  
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Delirium]], cortical [[blindness]], [[cerebral edema]], [[seizure]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Delirium]]
* Cortical [[blindness]]
* [[cerebral edema]]
* [[seizure]]
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Wernicke’s encephalopathy
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Drug toxicity]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Normal
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of alcohal abuse
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Ophthalmoplegia]], [[confusion]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Lithium]]
* Sedatives
* [[phenytoin]]
* [[carbamazepine]]
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[CNS abscess]]
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Conversion disorder]]  
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |'''↑''' [[leukocytes]] >100,000/ul, '''↓''' [[glucose]] and '''↑''' protien, '''↑''' red blood cells, [[lactic acid]] >500mg
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Contrast enhanced MRI is more sensitive and specific,
[[Histopathological]] examination of brain tissue
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of [[drug abuse]], [[endocarditis]], '''↓''' [[immune]] status
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |High grade [[fever]], [[fatigue]],[[Nausea and vomiting|nausea]], [[vomiting]]
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Drug toxicity]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Lithium]], Sedatives, [[phenytoin]], [[carbamazepine]]
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Conversion disorder]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Diagnosis of exclusion
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Diagnosis of exclusion
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" | ✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" | ✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Tremor|Tremors]], [[blindness]], difficulty [[swallowing]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
* [[Tremor|Tremors]]
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Electrolyte disturbance]]
* [[blindness]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |'''↓''' or '''↑'''
* Difficulty [[swallowing]]
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Depends on the cause
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Confusion]], [[Seizure|seizures]]
|-
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Febrile convulsion]]
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Febrile convulsion]]
Line 240: Line 352:
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Family history of [[febrile]] [[seizures]], [[viral]] illness or [[gastroenteritis]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Family history of [[febrile]] [[seizures]]
* Family history of [[gastroenteritis]]
 
* Family history of [[viral]] illness or
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Age > 1 month,  
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Age > 1 month,  
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Subdural empyema]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Clinical assesment and [[MRI]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of relapses and remissions
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Blurry vision, [[urinary incontinence]], [[fatigue]]
|-
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hypoglycemia]]  
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hypoglycemia]]  
Line 263: Line 363:
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Serum blood [[Glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase|glucose]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Serum [[Glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase|glucose]]
[[HbA1c]]
[[HbA1c]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
Line 274: Line 374:
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |History of [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |[[Palpitation|Palpitations]], [[sweating]], [[dizziness]], low serum, [[glucose]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Palpitation|Palpitations]]
* [[sweating]]
* [[dizziness]]
* Low serum [[glucose]]
|}
|}


==References==
==References==


{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
[[Category:Needs content]]
 
[[Category:Disease]]
[[Category:Gynecology]]
[[Category:Infectious disease]]
[[Category:Bacterial diseases]]
[[Category:Sexually transmitted diseases]]
{{WH}}
{{WH}}
{{WS}}
{{WS}}

Latest revision as of 19:03, 9 March 2018

Neurosyphilis Microchapters

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Overview

Historical perspective

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Differentiating Neurosyphilis from other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mohamadmostafa Jahansouz M.D.[2]Tarek Nafee, M.D. [3]

Overview

Neurosyphilis must be differentiated from other diseases that cause abnormal gait, Blindness, confusion and depression, such as multiple sclerosis, Brain tumours, Wernicke’s encephalopathy, CNS abscess, electrolyte disturbance, Subdural empyema, subarachnoid hemorrhage, brain stroke, Conversion disorder and Drug toxicity.

Differentiating X from other Diseases

  • Neuroyphilis has an extensive differential diagnosis.
Diseases Diagnostic tests Physical Examination Symptoms Past medical history Other Findings
Na+, K+, Ca2+ CT /MRI CSF Findings Gold standard test Neck stiffness Motor or Sensory deficit Papilledema Bulging fontanelle Cranial nerves Headache Fever Altered mental status
Neurosyphilis[3][4] Leukocytes and protein
  • CSF FTA-Ab -sensitive[5]
  • Unprotected sexual intercourse, STIs
  • History of multiple sexual partners.
Multiple sclerosis Oligoclonal bands of IgG on electrophoresis of cerebrospinal fluid MRI
Brain tumour[1][2] Cancer cells[7] MRI
  • Cachexia
  • Gradual progression of symptoms
Wernicke’s encephalopathy Normal History of alcohal abuse
CNS abscess
  • Contrast enhanced MRI is more sensitive and specific
Electrolyte disturbance or Depends on the cause
Subdural empyema Clinical assesment and MRI History of relapses and remissions
  • Blurry vision
Delirium tremens Clinical diagnosis
  • Alcohol intake
  • Sudden withdraw or reduction in consumption
Subarachnoid hemorrhage[8] Xanthochromia[9] CT scan without contrast[11][6] Trauma/fall
Stroke Normal CT scan without contrast TIAs, hypertension, diabetes mellitus
  • Speech difficulty
  • Gait abnormality
Viral encephalitis Clinical assesment
  • Tick bite
  • Mosquito bite
  • Viral prodome for several days
Herpes simplex encephalitis Clinical assesment History of hypertension
Drug toxicity
Conversion disorder Diagnosis of exclusion
Febrile convulsion Not performed in first simple febrile seizures Clinical diagnosis and EEG
  • Family history of viral illness or
Age > 1 month,
Hypoglycemia ↓ or Serum glucose

HbA1c

History of diabetes

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 Soffer D (1976) Brain tumors simulating purulent meningitis. Eur Neurol 14 (3):192-7. PMID: 1278192
  2. 2.0 2.1
  3. 3.0 3.1 Liu LL, Zheng WH, Tong ML, Liu GL, Zhang HL, Fu ZG; et al. (2012). "Ischemic stroke as a primary symptom of neurosyphilis among HIV-negative emergency patients". J Neurol Sci. 317 (1–2): 35–9. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2012.03.003. PMID 22482824.
  4. 4.0 4.1 Berger JR, Dean D (2014). "Neurosyphilis". Handb Clin Neurol. 121: 1461–72. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7020-4088-7.00098-5. PMID 24365430.
  5. 5.0 5.1 Ho EL, Marra CM (2012). "Treponemal tests for neurosyphilis--less accurate than what we thought?". Sex Transm Dis. 39 (4): 298–9. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31824ee574. PMC 3746559. PMID 22421697.
  6. 6.0 6.1 DeLaPaz RL, Wippold FJ, Cornelius RS, Amin-Hanjani S, Angtuaco EJ, Broderick DF; et al. (2011). "ACR Appropriateness Criteria® on cerebrovascular disease". J Am Coll Radiol. 8 (8): 532–8. doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2011.05.010. PMID 21807345.
  7. 7.0 7.1 Weston CL, Glantz MJ, Connor JR (2011). "Detection of cancer cells in the cerebrospinal fluid: current methods and future directions". Fluids Barriers CNS. 8 (1): 14. doi:10.1186/2045-8118-8-14. PMC 3059292. PMID 21371327.
  8. 8.0 8.1 Yeh ST, Lee WJ, Lin HJ, Chen CY, Te AL, Lin HJ (2003) Nonaneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage secondary to tuberculous meningitis: report of two cases. J Emerg Med 25 (3):265-70. PMID: 14585453
  9. 9.0 9.1 Lee MC, Heaney LM, Jacobson RL, Klassen AC (1975). "Cerebrospinal fluid in cerebral hemorrhage and infarction". Stroke. 6 (6): 638–41. PMID 1198628.
  10. Goldenberg MM (2012). "Multiple sclerosis review". P T. 37 (3): 175–84. PMC 3351877. PMID 22605909.
  11. Birenbaum D, Bancroft LW, Felsberg GJ (2011). "Imaging in acute stroke". West J Emerg Med. 12 (1): 67–76. PMC 3088377. PMID 21694755.

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