Influenza historical perspective
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Historical Perspective
The symptoms of human influenza were clearly described by Hippocrates roughly 2400 years ago.[2][3] Since then, the virus has caused numerous pandemics. Historical data on influenza are difficult to interpret, because the symptoms can be similar to those of other diseases, such as diphtheria, pneumonic plague, typhoid fever, dengue, or typhus. The first convincing record of an influenza pandemic was of an outbreak in 1580, which began in Asia and spread to Europe via Africa. In Rome over 8,000 people were killed, and several Spanish cities were almost wiped out. Pandemics continued sporadically throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, with the pandemic of 1830–1833 being particularly widespread; it infected approximately a quarter of the people exposed.[4]
The most famous and lethal outbreak was the so-called Spanish flu pandemic (type A influenza, H1N1 subtype), which lasted from 1918 to 1919. Older estimates say it killed 40–50 million people[5] while current estimates say 50 million to 100 million people worldwide were killed.[6] This pandemic has been described as "the greatest medical holocaust in history" and may have killed as many people as the Black Death.[4] This huge death toll was caused by an extremely high infection rate of up to 50% and the extreme severity of the symptoms, suspected to be caused by cytokine storms.[5] Indeed, symptoms in 1918 were so unusual that initially influenza was misdiagnosed as dengue, cholera, or typhoid. One observer wrote, "One of the most striking of the complications was hemorrhage from mucous membranes, especially from the nose, stomach, and intestine. Bleeding from the ears and petechial hemorrhages in the skin also occurred."[6] The majority of deaths were from bacterial pneumonia, a secondary infection caused by influenza, but the virus also killed people directly, causing massive hemorrhages and edema in the lung.[1] The Spanish flu pandemic was truly global, spreading even to the Arctic and remote Pacific islands. The unusually severe disease killed between 2 and 20% of those infected, as opposed to the more usual flu epidemic mortality rate of 0.1%.[1][6] Another unusual feature of this pandemic was that it mostly killed young adults, with 99% of pandemic influenza deaths occurring in people under 65, and more than half in young adults 20 to 40 years old.[7] This is unusual since influenza is normally most deadly to the very young (under age 2) and the very old (over age 70). The total mortality of the 1918–1919 pandemic is not known, but it is estimated that 2.5% to 5% of the world's population was killed. As many as 25 million may have been killed in the first 25 weeks; in contrast, HIV/AIDS has killed 25 million in its first 25 years.[6] Later flu pandemics were not so devastating. They included the 1957 Asian Flu (type A, H2N2 strain) and the 1968 Hong Kong Flu (type A, H3N2 strain), but even these smaller outbreaks killed millions of people. In later pandemics antibiotics were available to control secondary infections and this may have helped reduce mortality compared to the Spanish Flu of 1918.[1]
| Name of pandemic | Date | Deaths | Subtype involved | Pandemic Severity Index |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asiatic (Russian) Flu | 1889–1890 | 1 million | possibly H2N2 | ? |
| Spanish Flu | 1918–1920 | 40 million | H1N1 | 5 |
| Asian Flu | 1957–1958 | 1 to 1.5 million | H2N2 | 2 |
| Hong Kong Flu | 1968–1969 | 0.75 to 1 million | H3N2 | 2 |
The etiological cause of influenza, the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses, was first discovered in pigs by Richard Schope in 1931.[9] This discovery was shortly followed by the isolation of the virus from humans by a group headed by Patrick Laidlaw at the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom in 1933.[10] However, it was not until Wendell Stanley first crystallized tobacco mosaic virus in 1935 that the non-cellular nature of viruses was appreciated.
The first significant step towards preventing influenza was the development in 1944 of a killed-virus vaccine for influenza by Thomas Francis, Jr.. This built on work by Frank Macfarlane Burnet, who showed that the virus lost virulence when it was cultured in fertilized hen's eggs.[11] Application of this observation by Francis allowed his group of researchers at the University of Michigan to develop the first flu vaccine, with support from the U.S. Army.[12] The Army was deeply involved in this research due to its experience of influenza in World War I, when thousands of troops were killed by the virus in a matter of months.[6]
Although there were scares in New Jersey in 1976 (with the Swine Flu), world wide in 1977 (with the Russian Flu), and in Hong Kong and other Asian countries in 1997 (with H5N1 avian influenza), there have been no major pandemics since the 1968 Hong Kong Flu. Immunity to previous pandemic influenza strains and vaccination may have limited the spread of the virus and may have helped prevent further pandemics.[8]
Etymology
The term influenza has its origins in 15th-century Italy, where the cause of the disease was ascribed to unfavourable astrological influences. Evolution in medical thought led to its modification to influenza del freddo, meaning "influence of the cold." The word "influenza" was first attested in English in 1743 when it was borrowed during an outbreak of the disease in Europe.[13] Archaic terms for influenza include epidemic catarrh, grippe (from the French grippe, meaning flu; sometimes spelled "grip" or "gripe"), sweating sickness, and Spanish fever (particularly for the 1918 pandemic strain).[14]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Taubenberger, J (2006). "1918 Influenza: the mother of all pandemics". Emerg Infect Dis. 12 (1): 15–22. PMID 16494711. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Martin, P (2006). "2,500-year evolution of the term epidemic". Emerg Infect Dis. 12 (6). PMID 16707055. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Hippocrates (400 BCE). "Of the Epidemics". Retrieved 2006-10-18. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help); Check date values in:|date=(help) - ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Potter, CW (2006). "A History of Influenza". J Appl Microbiol. 91 (4): 572–579. PMID 11576290. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ 5.0 5.1 Patterson, KD (1991). "The geography and mortality of the 1918 influenza pandemic". Bull Hist Med. 65 (1): 4–21. PMID 2021692. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Knobler S, Mack A, Mahmoud A, Lemon S (ed.). "1: The Story of Influenza". The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary (2005). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. pp. 60–61.
- ↑ Simonsen, L (1998). "Pandemic versus epidemic influenza mortality: a pattern of changing age distribution". J Infect Dis. 178 (1): 53–60. PMID 9652423. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ 8.0 8.1 Hilleman, M (2002). "Realities and enigmas of human viral influenza: pathogenesis, epidemiology and control". Vaccine. 20 (25–26): 3068–87. PMID 12163258. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Shimizu, K (1997). "History of influenza epidemics and discovery of influenza virus". Nippon Rinsho. 55 (10): 2505–201. PMID 9360364. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Smith, W (1933). "A virus obtained from influenza patients". Lancet. 2: 66–68. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet: Biography The Nobel Foundation. Accessed 22 Oct 06
- ↑ Kendall, H (2006). "Vaccine Innovation: Lessons from World War II" (PDF). Journal of Public Health Policy. 27 (1): 38–57.
- ↑ Harper, D. "Influenza". Etymonlin.
- ↑ Smith, P. "Archaic Medical Terms". Retrieved 2006-10-23.