COVID-19 differential diagnosis: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
{{COVID-19}}
{{CMG}}{{AE}}{{sab}}; {{HK}}


==Overview==
Coronavirus [[infection]] should be differentiated from other [[Disease|diseases]] presenting with [[cough]], [[fever]], [[shortness of breath]] and [[tachypnea]].
=Differentiating Coronavirus Infection from other Diseases=
Coronavirus [[infection]] should be differentiated from other [[Disease|diseases]] presenting with [[cough]], [[fever]], [[shortness of breath]] and [[tachypnea]]. The differentials include the following:<ref name="pmid24550636">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brenes-Salazar JA |title=Westermark's and Palla's signs in acute and chronic pulmonary embolism: Still valid in the current computed tomography era |journal=J Emerg Trauma Shock |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=57–8 |year=2014 |pmid=24550636 |pmc=3912657 |doi=10.4103/0974-2700.125645 |url=}}</ref><ref name="urlCT Angiography of Pulmonary Embolism: Diagnostic Criteria and Causes of Misdiagnosis | RadioGraphics">{{cite web |url=http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.245045008 |title=CT Angiography of Pulmonary Embolism: Diagnostic Criteria and Causes of Misdiagnosis &#124; RadioGraphics |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23940438">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bĕlohlávek J, Dytrych V, Linhart A |title=Pulmonary embolism, part I: Epidemiology, risk factors and risk stratification, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and nonthrombotic pulmonary embolism |journal=Exp Clin Cardiol |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=129–38 |year=2013 |pmid=23940438 |pmc=3718593 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="urlPulmonary Embolism: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine - PubMed Health">{{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0022657/ |title=Pulmonary Embolism: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine - PubMed Health |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20118395">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramani GV, Uber PA, Mehra MR |title=Chronic heart failure: contemporary diagnosis and management |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=180–95 |year=2010 |pmid=20118395 |pmc=2813829 |doi=10.4065/mcp.2009.0494 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18215495">{{cite journal |vauthors=Blinderman CD, Homel P, Billings JA, Portenoy RK, Tennstedt SL |title=Symptom distress and quality of life in patients with advanced congestive heart failure |journal=J Pain Symptom Manage |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=594–603 |year=2008 |pmid=18215495 |pmc=2662445 |doi=10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2007.06.007 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19168510">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hawkins NM, Petrie MC, Jhund PS, Chalmers GW, Dunn FG, McMurray JJ |title=Heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: diagnostic pitfalls and epidemiology |journal=Eur. J. Heart Fail. |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=130–9 |year=2009 |pmid=19168510 |pmc=2639415 |doi=10.1093/eurjhf/hfn013 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9465867">{{cite journal |vauthors=Takasugi JE, Godwin JD |title=Radiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Radiol. Clin. North Am. |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=29–55 |year=1998 |pmid=9465867 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14651761">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wedzicha JA, Donaldson GC |title=Exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Respir Care |volume=48 |issue=12 |pages=1204–13; discussion 1213–5 |year=2003 |pmid=14651761 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23833163">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nakawah MO, Hawkins C, Barbandi F |title=Asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and the overlap syndrome |journal=J Am Board Fam Med |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=470–7 |year=2013 |pmid=23833163 |doi=10.3122/jabfm.2013.04.120256 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20511488">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khandaker MH, Espinosa RE, Nishimura RA, Sinak LJ, Hayes SN, Melduni RM, Oh JK |title=Pericardial disease: diagnosis and management |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=572–93 |year=2010 |pmid=20511488 |pmc=2878263 |doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0046 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23610095">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bogaert J, Francone M |title=Pericardial disease: value of CT and MR imaging |journal=Radiology |volume=267 |issue=2 |pages=340–56 |year=2013 |pmid=23610095 |doi=10.1148/radiol.13121059 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11680112">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gharib AM, Stern EJ |title=Radiology of pneumonia |journal=Med. Clin. North Am. |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=1461–91, x |year=2001 |pmid=11680112 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23507061">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmidt WA |title=Imaging in vasculitis |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=107–18 |year=2013 |pmid=23507061 |doi=10.1016/j.berh.2013.01.001 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16891436">{{cite journal |vauthors=Suresh E |title=Diagnostic approach to patients with suspected vasculitis |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=82 |issue=970 |pages=483–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16891436 |pmc=2585712 |doi=10.1136/pgmj.2005.042648 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid123074">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stein PD, Dalen JE, McIntyre KM, Sasahara AA, Wenger NK, Willis PW |title=The electrocardiogram in acute pulmonary embolism |journal=Prog Cardiovasc Dis |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=247–57 |year=1975 |pmid=123074 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23413894">{{cite journal |vauthors=Warnier MJ, Rutten FH, Numans ME, Kors JA, Tan HL, de Boer A, Hoes AW, De Bruin ML |title=Electrocardiographic characteristics of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=COPD |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=62–71 |year=2013 |pmid=23413894 |doi=10.3109/15412555.2012.727918 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23000104">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stein PD, Matta F, Ekkah M, Saleh T, Janjua M, Patel YR, Khadra H |title=Electrocardiogram in pneumonia |journal=Am. J. Cardiol. |volume=110 |issue=12 |pages=1836–40 |year=2012 |pmid=23000104 |doi=10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.08.019 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26209947">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hazebroek MR, Kemna MJ, Schalla S, Sanders-van Wijk S, Gerretsen SC, Dennert R, Merken J, Kuznetsova T, Staessen JA, Brunner-La Rocca HP, van Paassen P, Cohen Tervaert JW, Heymans S |title=Prevalence and prognostic relevance of cardiac involvement in ANCA-associated vasculitis: eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis and granulomatosis with polyangiitis |journal=Int. J. Cardiol. |volume=199 |issue= |pages=170–9 |year=2015 |pmid=26209947 |doi=10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.06.087 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20112390">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dennert RM, van Paassen P, Schalla S, Kuznetsova T, Alzand BS, Staessen JA, Velthuis S, Crijns HJ, Tervaert JW, Heymans S |title=Cardiac involvement in Churg-Strauss syndrome |journal=Arthritis Rheum. |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=627–34 |year=2010 |pmid=20112390 |doi=10.1002/art.27263 |url=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/symptoms.html|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="HuangWang20202">{{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Chaolin|last2=Wang|first2=Yeming|last3=Li|first3=Xingwang|last4=Ren|first4=Lili|last5=Zhao|first5=Jianping|last6=Hu|first6=Yi|last7=Zhang|first7=Li|last8=Fan|first8=Guohui|last9=Xu|first9=Jiuyang|last10=Gu|first10=Xiaoying|last11=Cheng|first11=Zhenshun|last12=Yu|first12=Ting|last13=Xia|first13=Jiaan|last14=Wei|first14=Yuan|last15=Wu|first15=Wenjuan|last16=Xie|first16=Xuelei|last17=Yin|first17=Wen|last18=Li|first18=Hui|last19=Liu|first19=Min|last20=Xiao|first20=Yan|last21=Gao|first21=Hong|last22=Guo|first22=Li|last23=Xie|first23=Jungang|last24=Wang|first24=Guangfa|last25=Jiang|first25=Rongmeng|last26=Gao|first26=Zhancheng|last27=Jin|first27=Qi|last28=Wang|first28=Jianwei|last29=Cao|first29=Bin|title=Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China|journal=The Lancet|year=2020|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5}}</ref>
{|
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |<small>Diseases</small>
! colspan="3" |<small>Diagnostic tests</small>
! colspan="3" |<small>Physical Examination</small>
| colspan="7" |<small>Symptoms
! colspan="1" rowspan="2" |<small>Past medical history</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>Other Findings</small>
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
!<small>CT scan and MRI</small>
!<small>EKG</small>
!<small>Chest X-ray</small> 
!<small>Tachypnea</small>
!<small>Tachycardia</small>
!<small>Fever</small>
!<small>Chest Pain</small>
!<small>Hemoptysis</small>
!<small>Dyspnea on Exertion</small>
!<small>Wheezing</small>
!<small>Chest Tenderness</small>
!<small>Nasalopharyngeal Ulceration</small>
!<small>Carotid Bruit</small>
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |COVID-19
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
* [[Bilateral]] ground-glass opacities on [[Computed tomography|chest CT]]
!-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Consolidation
* Peripheral ground glass opacity
!✔
!✔
!✔
!✔/-
!✔
!✔
!-
!✔/-
!-
!-
|
* Possible exposure to infected animals or persons
|
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pulmonary embolism]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align:center" |
* On [[CT angiography]]:
** Intra-luminal filling defect
*On [[MRI]]:
** Narrowing of involved [[Blood vessel|vessel]]
** No contrast seen distal to [[obstruction]]
** Polo-mint sign (partial filling defect surrounded by contrast)
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Pulmonary embolism electrocardiogram|S1Q3T3]] pattern representing acute [[right heart]] strain
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Fleischner sign]] (enlarged pulmonary artery), [[Hampton's hump|Hampton hump]], [[Westermark's sign]]
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔ (Low grade)
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔ (In case of massive PE)
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Hypercoagulating conditions ([[Factor V Leiden]], [[thrombophilia]], [[deep vein thrombosis]], immobilization, [[malignancy]], [[pregnancy]])
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* May be associated with [[metabolic alkalosis]] and [[syncope]]
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | [[Congestive heart failure]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*On [[Computed tomography|CT scan]]:
**[[Mediastinal lymphadenopathy]]
** Hazy [[mediastinal]] fat
*On [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]]:
** Abnormality of [[cardiac]] chambers ([[Hypertrophy (medical)|hypertrophy]], dilation)
** Delayed enhancement [[MRI]] may help characterize the [[myocardial]] [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]] ([[fibrosis]])
** Late enhancement of contrast in conditions such as [[myocarditis]], [[sarcoidosis]], [[amyloidosis]], [[Anderson-Fabry disease|Anderson-Fabry]]'s disease, [[Chagas disease]])
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Goldberg's criteria may aid in diagnosis of left ventricular dysfunction: (High specificity)
**[[S wave|S]]V1 or [[S wave|S]]V2 + [[R wave|R]]V5 or [[R wave|R]]V6 ≥3.5 mV
**Total [[QRS complex|QRS]] amplitude in each of the limb leads ≤0.8 mV
**[[R wave|R]]/[[S wave|S]] ratio <1 in lead V4
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Cardiomegaly]]
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Previous [[myocardial infarction]]
*[[Hypertension]] ([[Systemic hypertension|systemic]] and [[Pulmonary hypertension|pulmonary]])
*[[Cardiac arrhythmia|Cardiac arrythmias]]
*[[Viral]] infections ([[myocarditis]])
*[[Congenital heart disease|Congenital heart defects]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Right heart failure]] associated with:
**[[Hepatomegaly]]
**Positive hepato-jugular reflex
**Increased [[jugular venous pressure]]
**[[Peripheral edema]]
*[[Left heart failure]] associated with:
**[[Pulmonary edema]]
**Eventual [[right heart failure]]
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Percarditis]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*On contrast enhanced [[Computed tomography|CT scan]]:
**Enhancement of the [[pericardium]] (due to [[inflammation]])
**[[Pericardial effusion]]
**[[Pericardial calcification]]
*On [[gadolinium]]-enhanced fat-saturated [[Magnetic resonance imaging|T1-weighted MRI]]:
**[[Pericardial]] enhancement (due to [[inflammation]])
**[[Pericardial effusion]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*ST elevation
*PR depression
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Large collection of fluid inside the pericardial sac (pericardial effusion)
*Calcification of pericardial sac
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔ (Low grade)
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔ (Relieved by sitting up and leaning forward)
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Infections:
**[[Viral]] (Coxsackie virus, [[Herpes simplex virus|Herpes virus]], [[Mumps virus]], [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]])
**[[Bacteria]] ([[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]-common in developing countries)
**[[Fungal]] ([[Histoplasmosis]])
*Idiopathic in a large number of cases
*[[Autoimmune]]
*[[Uremia]]
*[[Malignancy]]
*Previous [[myocardial infarction]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*May be clinically classified into:
**Acute (< 6 weeks)
**Sub-acute (6 weeks - 6 months)
**Chronic (> 6 months)
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pneumonia]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*On [[Computed tomography|CT scan]]: (not generally indicated)
**[[Consolidation (medicine)|Consolidation]] ([[alveolar]]/lobar pneumonia)
**Peribronchial [[nodules]] ([[bronchopneumonia]])
**[[Ground glass opacification on CT|Ground-glass opacity]] (GGO)
**[[Abscess]]
**[[Pleural effusion]]
**On [[MRI]]:
*Not indicated
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Prolonged [[PR interval]]
*Transient [[T wave]] inversions
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Consolidation (medicine)|Consolidation]] ([[alveolar]]/lobar [[pneumonia]])
*Peribronchial [[nodules]] (bronchopneumonia)
*Ground-glass opacity (GGO)
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Ill-contact
*Travelling
*[[Smoking]]
*[[Diabetes mellitus|Diabetic]]
*Recent hospitalization
*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Requires [[Sputum|sputum stain]] and culture for diagnosis
*[[Empiric therapy|Empiric management]] usually started before [[Culture collection|culture]] results
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Vasculitis]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*On [[Computed tomography|CT scan]]: ([[Takayasu's arteritis|Takayasu arteritis]])
**[[Blood vessel|Vessel]] wall thickening
**Luminal narrowing of [[pulmonary artery]]
**Masses or nodules ([[Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody|ANCA]]-associated granulomatous vasculitis)
*On [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]]:
Homogeneous, circumferential [[Blood vessel|vessel]] wall [[swelling]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Bundle branch block|Right or left bundle-branch block]] ([[Churg-Strauss syndrome]])
*[[Atrial fibrillation]] ([[Churg-Strauss syndrome]])
*Non-specific [[ST interval|ST segment]] and [[T wave]] changes
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Nodule (medicine)|Nodules]]
*[[Cavitation]]
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Takayasu's arteritis|Takayasu arteritis]] usually found in persons aged 4-60 years with a mean of 30
*[[Giant-cell arteritis]] usually occurrs in persons aged > 60 years
*[[Churg-Strauss syndrome]] may present with [[asthma]], [[sinusitis]], transient [[pulmonary]] infiltrates and neuropathy alongwith [[cardiac]] involvement
*Granulomatous vasculitides may present with [[nephritis]] and [[upper airway]] ([[nasopharyngeal]]) destruction
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] (COPD)
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*On [[Computed tomography|CT scan]]:
**[[Chronic bronchitis]] may show [[bronchial]] wall thickening, scarring with bronchovascular irregularity, [[fibrosis]]
**[[Emphysema]] may show [[alveolar]] septal destruction and airspace enlargement (Centrilobular- upper lobe, panlobular- lower lobe)
**Giant bubbles
*On [[MRI]]:
**Increased diameter of [[pulmonary arteries]]
**Peripheral [[pulmonary]] [[vasculature]] attentuation
**Loss of retrosternal airspace due to right ventricular enlargement
**Hyperpolarized Helium MRI may show progressively poor ventilation and destruction of lung
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Multifocal atrial tachycardia]] (atleast 3 distinct [[P waves|P wave]] morphologies)
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*Enlarged [[lung]] shadows ([[emphysema]])
*Flattening of [[diaphragm]] ([[emphysema]])
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
! style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | -
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Smoking]]
*[[Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency|Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency]]
*Increased [[sputum]] production ([[chronic bronchitis]])
*[[Cough]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
*[[Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency|Alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency]] may be associated with [[hepatomegaly]]
|}<br />
=== Differentiating 2019-nCoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV ===
* Life threatening infection with 2019-nCoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV should be differentiated from each other. The following table differentiates infection from these coronaviruses:<ref name="ChanKok2020">{{cite journal|last1=Chan|first1=Jasper Fuk-Woo|last2=Kok|first2=Kin-Hang|last3=Zhu|first3=Zheng|last4=Chu|first4=Hin|last5=To|first5=Kelvin Kai-Wang|last6=Yuan|first6=Shuofeng|last7=Yuen|first7=Kwok-Yung|title=Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan|journal=Emerging Microbes & Infections|volume=9|issue=1|year=2020|pages=221–236|issn=2222-1751|doi=10.1080/22221751.2020.1719902}}</ref><ref name="LuZhao2020">{{cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Roujian|last2=Zhao|first2=Xiang|last3=Li|first3=Juan|last4=Niu|first4=Peihua|last5=Yang|first5=Bo|last6=Wu|first6=Honglong|last7=Wang|first7=Wenling|last8=Song|first8=Hao|last9=Huang|first9=Baoying|last10=Zhu|first10=Na|last11=Bi|first11=Yuhai|last12=Ma|first12=Xuejun|last13=Zhan|first13=Faxian|last14=Wang|first14=Liang|last15=Hu|first15=Tao|last16=Zhou|first16=Hong|last17=Hu|first17=Zhenhong|last18=Zhou|first18=Weimin|last19=Zhao|first19=Li|last20=Chen|first20=Jing|last21=Meng|first21=Yao|last22=Wang|first22=Ji|last23=Lin|first23=Yang|last24=Yuan|first24=Jianying|last25=Xie|first25=Zhihao|last26=Ma|first26=Jinmin|last27=Liu|first27=William J|last28=Wang|first28=Dayan|last29=Xu|first29=Wenbo|last30=Holmes|first30=Edward C|last31=Gao|first31=George F|last32=Wu|first32=Guizhen|last33=Chen|first33=Weijun|last34=Shi|first34=Weifeng|last35=Tan|first35=Wenjie|title=Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding|journal=The Lancet|year=2020|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8}}</ref><ref name="AjlanAhyad2014">{{cite journal|last1=Ajlan|first1=Amr M.|last2=Ahyad|first2=Rayan A.|last3=Jamjoom|first3=Lamia Ghazi|last4=Alharthy|first4=Ahmed|last5=Madani|first5=Tariq A.|title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) Infection: Chest CT Findings|journal=American Journal of Roentgenology|volume=203|issue=4|year=2014|pages=782–787|issn=0361-803X|doi=10.2214/AJR.14.13021}}</ref><ref name="HuangWang2020">{{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Chaolin|last2=Wang|first2=Yeming|last3=Li|first3=Xingwang|last4=Ren|first4=Lili|last5=Zhao|first5=Jianping|last6=Hu|first6=Yi|last7=Zhang|first7=Li|last8=Fan|first8=Guohui|last9=Xu|first9=Jiuyang|last10=Gu|first10=Xiaoying|last11=Cheng|first11=Zhenshun|last12=Yu|first12=Ting|last13=Xia|first13=Jiaan|last14=Wei|first14=Yuan|last15=Wu|first15=Wenjuan|last16=Xie|first16=Xuelei|last17=Yin|first17=Wen|last18=Li|first18=Hui|last19=Liu|first19=Min|last20=Xiao|first20=Yan|last21=Gao|first21=Hong|last22=Guo|first22=Li|last23=Xie|first23=Jungang|last24=Wang|first24=Guangfa|last25=Jiang|first25=Rongmeng|last26=Gao|first26=Zhancheng|last27=Jin|first27=Qi|last28=Wang|first28=Jianwei|last29=Cao|first29=Bin|title=Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China|journal=The Lancet|year=2020|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5}}</ref><ref name="urlCoronavirus | Home | CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/index.html |title=Coronavirus &#124; Home &#124; CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="pmid30070331">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nassar MS, Bakhrebah MA, Meo SA, Alsuabeyl MS, Zaher WA |title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection: epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical characteristics |journal=Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci |volume=22 |issue=15 |pages=4956–4961 |date=August 2018 |pmid=30070331 |doi=10.26355/eurrev_201808_15635 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25451066">{{cite journal |vauthors=Xia S, Liu Q, Wang Q, Sun Z, Su S, Du L, Ying T, Lu L, Jiang S |title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) entry inhibitors targeting spike protein |journal=Virus Res. |volume=194 |issue= |pages=200–10 |date=December 2014 |pmid=25451066 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2014.10.007 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24188935">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hajjar SA, Memish ZA, McIntosh K |title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV): a perpetual challenge |journal=Ann Saudi Med |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=427–36 |date=2013 |pmid=24188935 |pmc=6074883 |doi=10.5144/0256-4947.2013.427 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25448335">{{cite journal |vauthors=Memish ZA, Assiri AM, Al-Tawfiq JA |title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) viral shedding in the respiratory tract: an observational analysis with infection control implications |journal=Int. J. Infect. Dis. |volume=29 |issue= |pages=307–8 |date=December 2014 |pmid=25448335 |doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2014.10.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17470909">{{cite journal |vauthors=Satija N, Lal SK |title=The molecular biology of SARS coronavirus |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1102 |issue= |pages=26–38 |date=April 2007 |pmid=17470909 |doi=10.1196/annals.1408.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22180768">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bolles M, Donaldson E, Baric R |title=SARS-CoV and emergent coronaviruses: viral determinants of  interspecies transmission |journal=Curr Opin Virol |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=624–34 |date=December 2011 |pmid=22180768 |pmc=3237677 |doi=10.1016/j.coviro.2011.10.012 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25720466">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fehr AR, Perlman S |title=Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis |journal=Methods Mol. Biol. |volume=1282 |issue= |pages=1–23 |date=2015 |pmid=25720466 |pmc=4369385 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1 |url=}}</ref>
<br />
<small>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Type of Coronavirus
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Origins
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Family (Lineage)
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Receptor
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Incubation Period
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Genome size
! colspan="7" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Clinical Features
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Transmission
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Epidemiology
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Cytokine Profile
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Imaging Findings
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Serological Testing
|-
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Fever
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dry cough
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dyspnea
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Rhinorrhea
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Sneezing
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Sore throat
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Diarrhea
|-
|2019-nCoV
|
* Huanan seafood market, Wuhan, Hubei China (December 2019)
|
* Betacoronaviridea, subgenus: Sarbecovirus (Lineage B)
|
* ACE1/2
|
* 1-14 days
|
* 29.8 kB (> 80% nucleotide identity with SARS-CoV)
|<nowiki>++</nowiki>
| ++
| ++
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
* Human to human transmission through close contact
|
* 14380 confirmed cases
* 17 deaths
* Males > females
*Mortality rate 2.7%
|
* IL1B, IFNγ, IP10, and MCP1
* GCSF, IP10, MCP1, MIP1A, and TNFα (ICU-admitted)
* IL4 and IL10
|
* On CT scan:
** Bilateral ground-glass opacities
** Peripheral localization and subpleural sparing
|
|-
|MERS-CoV
|
* Saudi Arabia (September 2012)
|
* Betacoronaviridea (Lineage C)
|
* DPP4 (CD26)
|
* 2-14 days
|
* 29.9 kB
|<nowiki>++</nowiki>
|<nowiki>++</nowiki>
|<nowiki>++</nowiki>
|<nowiki>++</nowiki>
|<nowiki>++</nowiki>
|<nowiki>++</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|
* Limited human to human trasnmission
* Reservoirs:
** Bats
**Civets
**Camels
|
* 2494 confirmed cases
* 858 deaths
* Mortality rate of 34%
|
* IFNγ, TNFα, IL15, and IL17
|
* On CT scan:
** Bilateral, subpleural and basilar infiltrates
** Ground glass opacities
** Organizing pneumonia-like pattern (subpleural and peribroncho-vascular)
|
|-
|SARS-CoV
|
* Guangdong, Southern China (November 2002)
|
* Betacoronaviridea (Lineage B)
|
* ACE2
|
* 2-7 days
|
* 29.3 kB
| ++
| ++
| ++
| ++
| ++
| ++
| +
|
* Human to human transmission through close contact
* Reservoirs:
** Bats
**Civets
**Camels
|
* 8098 cases
* 774 deaths
* Mortality rate of about 10%
|
* IL1B, IL6, IL12, IFNγ, IP10, and MCP1
|
* On CT scan:
** Airspace consolidation
** Focal or multi-focal opacities
|
|}
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

Revision as of 00:20, 11 March 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sabawoon Mirwais, M.B.B.S, M.D.[2]; Syed Hassan A. Kazmi BSc, MD [3]

Overview

Coronavirus infection should be differentiated from other diseases presenting with cough, fever, shortness of breath and tachypnea.

Differentiating Coronavirus Infection from other Diseases

Coronavirus infection should be differentiated from other diseases presenting with cough, fever, shortness of breath and tachypnea. The differentials include the following:[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]

Diseases Diagnostic tests Physical Examination Symptoms Past medical history Other Findings
CT scan and MRI EKG Chest X-ray Tachypnea Tachycardia Fever Chest Pain Hemoptysis Dyspnea on Exertion Wheezing Chest Tenderness Nasalopharyngeal Ulceration Carotid Bruit
COVID-19 -
  • Consolidation
  • Peripheral ground glass opacity
 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔/- ✔ ✔ - ✔/- - -
  • Possible exposure to infected animals or persons
Pulmonary embolism
  • On CT angiography:
    • Intra-luminal filling defect
  • On MRI:
    • Narrowing of involved vessel
    • No contrast seen distal to obstruction
    • Polo-mint sign (partial filling defect surrounded by contrast)
 ✔ ✔ ✔ (Low grade) ✔ ✔ (In case of massive PE) ✔ - - - -
Congestive heart failure
  • Goldberg's criteria may aid in diagnosis of left ventricular dysfunction: (High specificity)
    • SV1 or SV2 + RV5 or RV6 ≥3.5 mV
    • Total QRS amplitude in each of the limb leads ≤0.8 mV
    • R/S ratio <1 in lead V4
 ✔ ✔ ✔ - - ✔ - - - -
Percarditis
  • ST elevation
  • PR depression
  • Large collection of fluid inside the pericardial sac (pericardial effusion)
  • Calcification of pericardial sac
 ✔ ✔ ✔ (Low grade) ✔ (Relieved by sitting up and leaning forward) - ✔ - - - -
  • May be clinically classified into:
    • Acute (< 6 weeks)
    • Sub-acute (6 weeks - 6 months)
    • Chronic (> 6 months)
Pneumonia ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ - ✔ ✔ - - -
Vasculitis

Homogeneous, circumferential vessel wall swelling

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ - ✔ ✔ ✔
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
  • On CT scan:
  • On MRI:
    • Increased diameter of pulmonary arteries
    • Peripheral pulmonary vasculature attentuation
    • Loss of retrosternal airspace due to right ventricular enlargement
    • Hyperpolarized Helium MRI may show progressively poor ventilation and destruction of lung
 ✔ ✔ - - - ✔ ✔ - - -


Differentiating 2019-nCoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV




Type of Coronavirus Origins Family (Lineage) Receptor Incubation Period Genome size Clinical Features Transmission Epidemiology Cytokine Profile Imaging Findings Serological Testing
Fever Dry cough Dyspnea Rhinorrhea Sneezing Sore throat Diarrhea
2019-nCoV
  • Huanan seafood market, Wuhan, Hubei China (December 2019)
  • Betacoronaviridea, subgenus: Sarbecovirus (Lineage B)
  • ACE1/2
  • 1-14 days
  • 29.8 kB (> 80% nucleotide identity with SARS-CoV)
 ++ ++ ++ + + + -
  • Human to human transmission through close contact
  • 14380 confirmed cases
  • 17 deaths
  • Males > females
  • Mortality rate 2.7%
  • IL1B, IFNγ, IP10, and MCP1
  • GCSF, IP10, MCP1, MIP1A, and TNFα (ICU-admitted)
  • IL4 and IL10
  • On CT scan:
    • Bilateral ground-glass opacities
    • Peripheral localization and subpleural sparing
MERS-CoV
  • Saudi Arabia (September 2012)
  • Betacoronaviridea (Lineage C)
  • DPP4 (CD26)
  • 2-14 days
  • 29.9 kB
 ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +
  • Limited human to human trasnmission
  • Reservoirs:
    • Bats
    • Civets
    • Camels
  • 2494 confirmed cases
  • 858 deaths
  • Mortality rate of 34%
  • IFNγ, TNFα, IL15, and IL17
  • On CT scan:
    • Bilateral, subpleural and basilar infiltrates
    • Ground glass opacities
    • Organizing pneumonia-like pattern (subpleural and peribroncho-vascular)
SARS-CoV
  • Guangdong, Southern China (November 2002)
  • Betacoronaviridea (Lineage B)
  • ACE2
  • 2-7 days
  • 29.3 kB
 ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +
  • Human to human transmission through close contact
  • Reservoirs:
    • Bats
    • Civets
    • Camels
  • 8098 cases
  • 774 deaths
  • Mortality rate of about 10%
  • IL1B, IL6, IL12, IFNγ, IP10, and MCP1
  • On CT scan:
    • Airspace consolidation
    • Focal or multi-focal opacities

References

  1. ↑ Brenes-Salazar JA (2014). "Westermark's and Palla's signs in acute and chronic pulmonary embolism: Still valid in the current computed tomography era". J Emerg Trauma Shock. 7 (1): 57–8. doi:10.4103/0974-2700.125645. PMC 3912657. PMID 24550636.
  2. ↑ "CT Angiography of Pulmonary Embolism: Diagnostic Criteria and Causes of Misdiagnosis | RadioGraphics".
  3. ↑ Bĕlohlávek J, Dytrych V, Linhart A (2013). "Pulmonary embolism, part I: Epidemiology, risk factors and risk stratification, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and nonthrombotic pulmonary embolism". Exp Clin Cardiol. 18 (2): 129–38. PMC 3718593. PMID 23940438.
  4. ↑ "Pulmonary Embolism: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine - PubMed Health".
  5. ↑ Ramani GV, Uber PA, Mehra MR (2010). "Chronic heart failure: contemporary diagnosis and management". Mayo Clin. Proc. 85 (2): 180–95. doi:10.4065/mcp.2009.0494. PMC 2813829. PMID 20118395.
  6. ↑ Blinderman CD, Homel P, Billings JA, Portenoy RK, Tennstedt SL (2008). "Symptom distress and quality of life in patients with advanced congestive heart failure". J Pain Symptom Manage. 35 (6): 594–603. doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2007.06.007. PMC 2662445. PMID 18215495.
  7. ↑ Hawkins NM, Petrie MC, Jhund PS, Chalmers GW, Dunn FG, McMurray JJ (2009). "Heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: diagnostic pitfalls and epidemiology". Eur. J. Heart Fail. 11 (2): 130–9. doi:10.1093/eurjhf/hfn013. PMC 2639415. PMID 19168510.
  8. ↑ Takasugi JE, Godwin JD (1998). "Radiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Radiol. Clin. North Am. 36 (1): 29–55. PMID 9465867.
  9. ↑ Wedzicha JA, Donaldson GC (2003). "Exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Respir Care. 48 (12): 1204–13, discussion 1213–5. PMID 14651761.
  10. ↑ Nakawah MO, Hawkins C, Barbandi F (2013). "Asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and the overlap syndrome". J Am Board Fam Med. 26 (4): 470–7. doi:10.3122/jabfm.2013.04.120256. PMID 23833163.
  11. ↑ Khandaker MH, Espinosa RE, Nishimura RA, Sinak LJ, Hayes SN, Melduni RM, Oh JK (2010). "Pericardial disease: diagnosis and management". Mayo Clin. Proc. 85 (6): 572–93. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0046. PMC 2878263. PMID 20511488.
  12. ↑ Bogaert J, Francone M (2013). "Pericardial disease: value of CT and MR imaging". Radiology. 267 (2): 340–56. doi:10.1148/radiol.13121059. PMID 23610095.
  13. ↑ Gharib AM, Stern EJ (2001). "Radiology of pneumonia". Med. Clin. North Am. 85 (6): 1461–91, x. PMID 11680112.
  14. ↑ Schmidt WA (2013). "Imaging in vasculitis". Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 27 (1): 107–18. doi:10.1016/j.berh.2013.01.001. PMID 23507061.
  15. ↑ Suresh E (2006). "Diagnostic approach to patients with suspected vasculitis". Postgrad Med J. 82 (970): 483–8. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2005.042648. PMC 2585712. PMID 16891436.
  16. ↑ Stein PD, Dalen JE, McIntyre KM, Sasahara AA, Wenger NK, Willis PW (1975). "The electrocardiogram in acute pulmonary embolism". Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 17 (4): 247–57. PMID 123074.
  17. ↑ Warnier MJ, Rutten FH, Numans ME, Kors JA, Tan HL, de Boer A, Hoes AW, De Bruin ML (2013). "Electrocardiographic characteristics of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". COPD. 10 (1): 62–71. doi:10.3109/15412555.2012.727918. PMID 23413894.
  18. ↑ Stein PD, Matta F, Ekkah M, Saleh T, Janjua M, Patel YR, Khadra H (2012). "Electrocardiogram in pneumonia". Am. J. Cardiol. 110 (12): 1836–40. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.08.019. PMID 23000104.
  19. ↑ Hazebroek MR, Kemna MJ, Schalla S, Sanders-van Wijk S, Gerretsen SC, Dennert R, Merken J, Kuznetsova T, Staessen JA, Brunner-La Rocca HP, van Paassen P, Cohen Tervaert JW, Heymans S (2015). "Prevalence and prognostic relevance of cardiac involvement in ANCA-associated vasculitis: eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis and granulomatosis with polyangiitis". Int. J. Cardiol. 199: 170–9. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.06.087. PMID 26209947.
  20. ↑ Dennert RM, van Paassen P, Schalla S, Kuznetsova T, Alzand BS, Staessen JA, Velthuis S, Crijns HJ, Tervaert JW, Heymans S (2010). "Cardiac involvement in Churg-Strauss syndrome". Arthritis Rheum. 62 (2): 627–34. doi:10.1002/art.27263. PMID 20112390.
  21. ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/symptoms.html. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  22. ↑ Huang, Chaolin; Wang, Yeming; Li, Xingwang; Ren, Lili; Zhao, Jianping; Hu, Yi; Zhang, Li; Fan, Guohui; Xu, Jiuyang; Gu, Xiaoying; Cheng, Zhenshun; Yu, Ting; Xia, Jiaan; Wei, Yuan; Wu, Wenjuan; Xie, Xuelei; Yin, Wen; Li, Hui; Liu, Min; Xiao, Yan; Gao, Hong; Guo, Li; Xie, Jungang; Wang, Guangfa; Jiang, Rongmeng; Gao, Zhancheng; Jin, Qi; Wang, Jianwei; Cao, Bin (2020). "Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China". The Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5. ISSN 0140-6736.
  23. ↑ Chan, Jasper Fuk-Woo; Kok, Kin-Hang; Zhu, Zheng; Chu, Hin; To, Kelvin Kai-Wang; Yuan, Shuofeng; Yuen, Kwok-Yung (2020). "Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan". Emerging Microbes & Infections. 9 (1): 221–236. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1719902. ISSN 2222-1751.
  24. ↑ Lu, Roujian; Zhao, Xiang; Li, Juan; Niu, Peihua; Yang, Bo; Wu, Honglong; Wang, Wenling; Song, Hao; Huang, Baoying; Zhu, Na; Bi, Yuhai; Ma, Xuejun; Zhan, Faxian; Wang, Liang; Hu, Tao; Zhou, Hong; Hu, Zhenhong; Zhou, Weimin; Zhao, Li; Chen, Jing; Meng, Yao; Wang, Ji; Lin, Yang; Yuan, Jianying; Xie, Zhihao; Ma, Jinmin; Liu, William J; Wang, Dayan; Xu, Wenbo; Holmes, Edward C; Gao, George F; Wu, Guizhen; Chen, Weijun; Shi, Weifeng; Tan, Wenjie (2020). "Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding". The Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8. ISSN 0140-6736.
  25. ↑ Ajlan, Amr M.; Ahyad, Rayan A.; Jamjoom, Lamia Ghazi; Alharthy, Ahmed; Madani, Tariq A. (2014). "Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) Infection: Chest CT Findings". American Journal of Roentgenology. 203 (4): 782–787. doi:10.2214/AJR.14.13021. ISSN 0361-803X.
  26. ↑ Huang, Chaolin; Wang, Yeming; Li, Xingwang; Ren, Lili; Zhao, Jianping; Hu, Yi; Zhang, Li; Fan, Guohui; Xu, Jiuyang; Gu, Xiaoying; Cheng, Zhenshun; Yu, Ting; Xia, Jiaan; Wei, Yuan; Wu, Wenjuan; Xie, Xuelei; Yin, Wen; Li, Hui; Liu, Min; Xiao, Yan; Gao, Hong; Guo, Li; Xie, Jungang; Wang, Guangfa; Jiang, Rongmeng; Gao, Zhancheng; Jin, Qi; Wang, Jianwei; Cao, Bin (2020). "Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China". The Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5. ISSN 0140-6736.
  27. ↑ "Coronavirus | Home | CDC".
  28. ↑ Nassar MS, Bakhrebah MA, Meo SA, Alsuabeyl MS, Zaher WA (August 2018). "Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection: epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical characteristics". Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 22 (15): 4956–4961. doi:10.26355/eurrev_201808_15635. PMID 30070331.
  29. ↑ Xia S, Liu Q, Wang Q, Sun Z, Su S, Du L, Ying T, Lu L, Jiang S (December 2014). "Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) entry inhibitors targeting spike protein". Virus Res. 194: 200–10. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2014.10.007. PMID 25451066.
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  34. ↑ Fehr AR, Perlman S (2015). "Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis". Methods Mol. Biol. 1282: 1–23. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1. PMC 4369385. PMID 25720466.
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