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==Overview==
==Overview==
In 2019, a total of 8,920 TB cases were reported in the US (incidence of 2.7 cases/100,000 persons). This was an overall decrease by approximately 1.1% from 2018, with a reported 9,021 cases. In 2015, about 10.4 million people developed symptomatic TB and 1.8 million died from the disease. In 2014 there were 9 421 reported cases in the United States, with an [[incidence]] of 3.0 per 100 000 persons.  Since 1990, the [[mortality rate]] of TB has been steadily decreasing.  The prevalence of TB increases with age and it is more prevalent in older men.  Racial and ethnic minorities have a higher prevalence of TB than non-Hispanic whites. TB is an important cause of death in people who are [[coinfection|coinfected]] with [[HIV]], with approximately a third of deaths among these patients being due to TB. In 2015, 60% of TB cases worldwide occurred in 6 countries: South Africa, Indonesia, Nigeria, Pakistan, India, and China. The WHO has identified 24 other high-burden TB countries including Bangladesh, Congo, Columbia, Cambodia, Korea, Brazil, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Mozambique, Thailand, Angola, Vietnam, Kenya, Central Africa, Russia, Liberia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Philippines, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Zambia, Papua New Guinea, Lesotho.<ref name=" CDC2">{{Cite web | title = WHO 2016 TB Report | url =http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/250441/1/9789241565394-eng.pdf?ua=1}}</ref>
In 2019, about 8,920 [[TB]] cases were documented in the US with an [[Incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of 2.7 cases/100,000 persons. This represented a decrease by 1.1% from 2018. In 2015, about 10.4 million people developed [[symptomatic]] [[Tuberculosis|TB]] and 1.8 million died from the disease. In 2014, approximately 9,421 cases were documented in the United States, with an [[incidence]] of 3.0 cases/100 000 persons.  Since 1990, there has been a decrease in the [[mortality rate]] .  [[Tuberculosis|TB]] is more [[prevalent]] in older men.  Racial and [[Ethnic group|ethnic]] minorities have a higher [[prevalence]] of TB than non-Hispanic whites. [[coinfection|Coinfection]] with [[HIV]] is an important leading cause of death in [[Tuberculosis|TB]]. In 2015, 60% of the worldwide TB cases were in 6 countries: South Africa, Indonesia, China, Pakistan, India, and Nigeria. The WHO reported 24 other high-burden TB countries including Bangladesh, Korea, Columbia, Cambodia, Congo, Brazil, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Liberia, Vietnam, Kenya, Central Africa, Russia, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Zambia, Papua New Guinea, and Lesotho.<ref name="CDC2">{{Cite web | title = WHO 2016 TB Report | url =http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/250441/1/9789241565394-eng.pdf?ua=1}}</ref>


==Epidemiology==
==Epidemiology==


*Worldwide, in 2018, about 10 million persons with incident TB and 1.5 million TB-related deaths occurred.
*Worldwide, in 2018, there were approximately 10 million individuals with incident TB and about 1.5 million TB-related deaths.
**Approx. 862,000 of these cases were among people with HIV <sup>[https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/99462 <nowiki>[12]</nowiki>]</sup>
**Approximately 862,000 of these cases were in patients [[coinfected]] with [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]] <sup>[https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/99462 <nowiki>[12]</nowiki>]</sup>
*Worldwide, in 2015, about 10.4 million people developed symptomatic [[Tuberculosis|TB]].<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>
*Worldwide, in 2015, approximately 10.4 million people had symptomatic [[Tuberculosis|TB]].<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>


:*1.17 million of these cases occurred among people with [[HIV]].<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>
:*1.17 million of these cases occurred were in patients [[coinfected]] with [[HIV]].<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>


*Worldwide, in 2015, about 1.8 million people died from [[Tuberculosis|TB]].<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>
*Worldwide, in 2015, about 1.8 million people died from [[Tuberculosis|TB]].<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>


:*400,000 of these cases occurred among people with [[HIV]].<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>
:*400,000 of these cases were in patients [[coinfected]] with [[HIV]].<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>


*In the United States, a total of 9,421 cases were reported in 2014.
*In the United States, in 2014, approximately 9,421 cases were reported with an [[incidence]] of 3.0 cases/100 000 persons.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>
 
:*This represents an [[incidence]] of 3.0 cases per 100 000 persons.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis (TB) | url = http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm }}</ref><ref name="WHO">{{cite web | title = Tuberculosis | url = http://www.who.int/tb/en/ }}</ref>


==Incidence and Mortality==
==Incidence and Mortality==
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===Tuberculosis in Endemic Countries===
===Tuberculosis in Endemic Countries===
In 2015, 60% of TB cases worldwide occurred in six countries:
In 2015, 60% of the worldwide TB cases were reported in six countries:
====South Africa====
====South Africa====


*The incidence of tuberculosis in South Africa is '''834''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[Incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of [[tuberculosis]] was reported as '''834''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The mortality of tuberculosis (excluding HIV-TB coinfection) in South Africa is '''46''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[mortality rate]] of [[tuberculosis]] (excluding HIV-TB coinfection) was reported as '''46''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>


====Indonesia====
====Indonesia====


*The incidence of tuberculosis in Indonesia is '''395''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[Incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of tuberculosis was reported as '''395''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The mortality of tuberculosis (excluding HIV-TB coinfection) in Indonesia is '''40''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[mortality]] rate of [[tuberculosis]] (excluding [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]-[[Tuberculosis|TB]] [[coinfection]]) was reported as '''40''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>


====Nigeria====
====Nigeria====


*The incidence of tuberculosis in Nigeria is '''322''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[incidence]] of [[tuberculosis]] was reported as '''322''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The mortality of tuberculosis (excluding HIV-TB coinfection) in Nigeria is '''99''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[mortality rate]] of [[tuberculosis]] (excluding [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]-[[TB coinfection]]) was reported as '''99''' per 100,000 of the general  population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>


====Pakistan====
====Pakistan====


*The incidence of tuberculosis in Pakistan is '''270''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[Incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of [[tuberculosis]] was reported as '''270''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The mortality of tuberculosis (excluding HIV-TB coinfection) in Pakistan is '''23''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[mortality rate]] of [[tuberculosis]] (excluding [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]-TB coinfection) was reported as '''23''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>


====India====
====India====


*The incidence of tuberculosis in India is '''217''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[Incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of [[tuberculosis]] was reported as '''217''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The mortality of tuberculosis (excluding HIV-TB coinfection) in India is '''36''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[mortality rate]] of tuberculosis (excluding [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]-TB [[coinfection]]) was reported as '''36''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>


====China====
====China====


*The incidence of tuberculosis in China is '''67''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[Incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of tuberculosis was reported as '''67''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The mortality of tuberculosis (excluding HIV-TB coinfection) in  China is '''2.6''' per 100,000 of the overall population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>
*The [[mortality rate]] of [[tuberculosis]] (excluding [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV-]]TB [[coinfection]]) was reported as '''2.6''' per 100,000 of the general population.<ref name="CDC2"></ref>


===Tuberculosis in the United States===
===Tuberculosis in the United States===
After the resurgence of TB in the mid-1980s, the number of case counts steadily increased, peaking in 1992.  Since the 1992 TB resurgence peak in the United States, the number of TB cases reported has decreased annually. The year 2014 marked the twenty-second year of decline in the total number of TB cases reported in the United States since the peak of the resurgence.  In 2014, a total of 9,421 cases were reported from the 50 states and the District of Columbia (DC). This represented a decline of 1.5% from 2013. The number of cases per 100,000 in 2013 and 2014 has been stable at a rate of 3.0.<ref name="CDC2">{{Cite web | title = Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | url =http://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/statistics/tbtrends.htm}}</ref>
[[Tuberculosis|TB]] [[resurge]] occurred in the mid-1980s since when the number of [[cases]] steadily increased with a peak occurred in 1992.  Following this peak, the number of reported [[Tuberculosis|TB]] cases has decreased annually. The year of 2014 represented the twenty-second year of decline in the [[reported]] [[Tuberculosis|TB]] [[cases]] in the [[United States]] since that peak.  In 2014, approximately a total number of 9,421 cases were reported in the 50 states and the District of Columbia (DC). This was considered a [[Decline in amphibian populations|decline]] of 1.5% from 2013. The number of [[Tuberculosis|TB]] cases per 100,000 in 2013 and 2014 was at a stable [[Rate (mathematics)|rate]] of 3.0.<ref name="CDC2">{{Cite web | title = Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | url =http://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/statistics/tbtrends.htm}}</ref>




Line 147: Line 145:
==Demographics==
==Demographics==
===Age===
===Age===
In 2014, case rates in most age groups declined by approximately 70% from the 1993 values.  Below is the comparison between the case rates (per 100 000 persons) of these two years, according to different ages:<ref name=" CDC 2014 age"> Center for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/2014-surveillance-report_table4.pdf </ref>
In 2014, TB cases in most age groups decreased by approximately 70% from the 1993 values.  Below is the comparison between the case rates (per 100 000 persons) of these two years, according to different ages:<ref name="CDC 2014 age"> Center for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/2014-surveillance-report_table4.pdf </ref>


{| style="border: 0px; font-size: 90%; margin: 3px;" align="center"
{| style="border: 0px; font-size: 90%; margin: 3px;" align="center"
Line 276: Line 274:
*Image 7 shows a declining trend in [[TB]] rates by race/ethnicity during the last 12 years.<ref name="CDC1"> Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/tb-surveillance-2014-report.pdf</ref>
*Image 7 shows a declining trend in [[TB]] rates by race/ethnicity during the last 12 years.<ref name="CDC1"> Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/tb-surveillance-2014-report.pdf</ref>


*Image 8 shows that above the age of 5, there is an increased risk of TB with age across all racial and ethnic groups. Rates were consistently higher in minority racial and ethnic groups than in non-Hispanic whites and were highest in Asians, Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, particularly in the adult age groups.<ref name=" CDC1"> Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/tb-surveillance-2014-report.pdf</ref>
*Image 8 shows that above the age of 5, there is an increased risk of TB with age across all racial and ethnic groups. Rates were consistently higher in minority racial and ethnic groups than in non-Hispanic whites and were highest in Asians, Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, particularly in the adult age groups.<ref name="CDC1"> Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/tb-surveillance-2014-report.pdf</ref>


*Image 9 shows that in 2014, 85% of all reported TB cases occurred in racial and ethnic minorities, whereas 13% of cases occurred in non-Hispanic whites. Persons reporting two or more races accounted for 2% of all cases<ref name="CDC1">{{Cite web | title = Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | url =https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/tb-surveillance-2014-report.pdf}}</ref>
*Image 9 shows that in 2014, 85% of all reported TB cases occurred in racial and ethnic minorities, whereas 13% of cases occurred in non-Hispanic whites. Persons reporting two or more races accounted for 2% of all cases<ref name="CDC1">{{Cite web | title = Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | url =https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/tb-surveillance-2014-report.pdf}}</ref>

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mashal Awais, M.D.[3]; João André Alves Silva, M.D. [4], Dima Nimri, M.D. [5], Tarek Nafee, M.D. [6]

Overview

In 2019, about 8,920 TB cases were documented in the US with an incidence of 2.7 cases/100,000 persons. This represented a decrease by 1.1% from 2018. In 2015, about 10.4 million people developed symptomatic TB and 1.8 million died from the disease. In 2014, approximately 9,421 cases were documented in the United States, with an incidence of 3.0 cases/100 000 persons. Since 1990, there has been a decrease in the mortality rate . TB is more prevalent in older men. Racial and ethnic minorities have a higher prevalence of TB than non-Hispanic whites. Coinfection with HIV is an important leading cause of death in TB. In 2015, 60% of the worldwide TB cases were in 6 countries: South Africa, Indonesia, China, Pakistan, India, and Nigeria. The WHO reported 24 other high-burden TB countries including Bangladesh, Korea, Columbia, Cambodia, Congo, Brazil, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Liberia, Vietnam, Kenya, Central Africa, Russia, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Zambia, Papua New Guinea, and Lesotho.[1]

Epidemiology

  • Worldwide, in 2018, there were approximately 10 million individuals with incident TB and about 1.5 million TB-related deaths.
  • Worldwide, in 2015, approximately 10.4 million people had symptomatic TB.[2][3]
  • Worldwide, in 2015, about 1.8 million people died from TB.[2][3]
  • In the United States, in 2014, approximately 9,421 cases were reported with an incidence of 3.0 cases/100 000 persons.[2][3]

Incidence and Mortality

Worldwide Tuberculosis

  • Over 95% of TB deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, and it is among the top three causes of death for women aged 15 to 44.
  • The TB death rate dropped 45% between 1990 and 2012.
  • In 2015, 3 million lives were saved by the global TB response.

Global Regional Incidence & Mortality

The following global regional trends in TB incidence are observed from 2000 to 2015:

Global Incidence and Mortality of Tuberculosis and HIV, By Region (2015)
African Region American Region Eastern Mediterranean Region European Region South-East Asian Region Western-Pacific Region
Incidence
(per 100 000) 		275 27 116 36 246 86
Incidence of Multi-Drug Resistant TB
(per 100 000) 		11 1.1 6 14 10 5.5
Mortality (excluding HIV-TB coinfection)
(per 100 000) 		45 1.9 12 3.5 37 4.8
Mortality (only HIV-TB coinfection)
(per 100 000) 		30 0.59 0.46 0.54 3.9 0.31
Total new cases in 2016 1 333 504 230 519 484 733 297 448 2 656 560 1 361 430
Table adapted from WHO Global Report 2016 [1]

TB and HIV

Immunosuppression secondary to HIV is strongly associated with incidence of TB and its subsequent complications. Tuberculosis contributes to a considerable proportion of HIV/AIDS related deaths.

Tuberculosis in Endemic Countries

In 2015, 60% of the worldwide TB cases were reported in six countries:

South Africa

Indonesia

Nigeria

Pakistan

India

China

Tuberculosis in the United States

TB resurge occurred in the mid-1980s since when the number of cases steadily increased with a peak occurred in 1992. Following this peak, the number of reported TB cases has decreased annually. The year of 2014 represented the twenty-second year of decline in the reported TB cases in the United States since that peak. In 2014, approximately a total number of 9,421 cases were reported in the 50 states and the District of Columbia (DC). This was considered a decline of 1.5% from 2013. The number of TB cases per 100,000 in 2013 and 2014 was at a stable rate of 3.0.[1]


Image 1 - Reported TB Cases United States, 1982–2014- Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)[1]
Image 2 - TB Case Rates,* United States, 2014- Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)[1]

Demographics

Age

In 2014, TB cases in most age groups decreased by approximately 70% from the 1993 values. Below is the comparison between the case rates (per 100 000 persons) of these two years, according to different ages:[4]

Age Case rate in 1993 Case rate in 2014
>65 years 17.7 4.8
45 - 64 years 12.4 3.5
25 - 44 years 11.5 3.4
15 - 24 years 5.0 2.2
< 15 years 2.9 0.8
Data provided by the CDC[2][3][4]
Image 4 - TB Case Rates* by Age Group United States, 1993–2014- Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)[5]
Image 5 - Reported TB Cases by Age Group, United States, 2014- Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)[5]

Depending on the age of the patient, tuberculosis may have different clinical manifestations, progression, and prognosis:[6][7][8][9][7][10]

Factor Influence
Infants and Children
  • Younger age (< 5 years) is associated with a higher risk of developing progressive disease.
  • Infants are more prone to the development of tuberculosis following infection with M. tuberculosis.
  • Tendency for the disease to disseminate and evolve into miliary tuberculosis.
  • Common involvement of:
  • Good prognosis, even in the absence of treatment, often with spontaneous healing.
  • Cavitary tuberculosis has a higher risk of relapse.
Adolescents
  • Commonly affects lower regions of the lungs and presents with hilar adenitis
  • Hilar calcification is rare
  • Common in immunocompromised and dark-skinned patients
  • Towards young adulthood, the disease tends to occur in apical regions.
Midadulthood
  • If the infection is acquired during mid-adulthood, the disease has a better prognosis, possibly due to the existence of less necrotic tissue.
Elderly
  • Elderly patients have a weaker immune system. Therefore, latent disease, acquired at younger ages, may progress into active tuberculosis with posterior-apical predominance.
  • A large group of elderly patients are TST negative because they have never been infected; they have lost the hypersensitivity reaction; or because they have completely cleared previous infections. These patients are susceptible to reinfection.
  • Tuberculosis in these patients often presents as lower or middle lobe pneumonitis, seldom with pleural effusion.
  • Similar to childhood tuberculosis, with less degree of lymphadenopathy
  • Higher death rate

Gender

In 2012, 410,000 women died of TB in the United States, including 160,000 who were HIV-positive. Of the overall TB deaths among HIV-positive people, 50% were women.[2][3] TB rates tend to increase with age, ranging from a low, of less than 1 per 100,000 in children aged 5 - 14 to a high of 6.9 per 100,000 in men 65 years and older. As age increased, the case rate increased faster in men than in women; the rates in men 45 years and older were approximately more than twice those in same-age women.[2][3]


Image 6 - TB Case Rates by Age Group and Sex, United States, 2014- Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)[5]

Race

The highest TB rates was observed in Asians, a decline from 29.9 per 100,000 persons in 2003 to 17.8 in 2014.[2][11]

Racial/ethnic groups Case rate in 2003 Case rate in 2014
Non-Hispanic blacks or African-Americans 11.7 5.1
Hispanics 10.3 5.0
American Indians and Alaska Natives 8.2 5.0
Non-Hispanic whites 1.4 0.6
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders 16.2 16.9
Data provided by the CDC[2][3][11]

Several important factors contribute to the disproportionate burden of TB in minorities. In persons who were born in countries where TB is endemic, the disease may result from an infection acquired in the country of origin. Unequal distribution of TB risk factors, such as HIV infection, may also contribute to increased exposure to TB or to an increased risk of developing TB once infected with M. tuberculosis.[2]

  • Image 7 shows a declining trend in TB rates by race/ethnicity during the last 12 years.[5]
  • Image 8 shows that above the age of 5, there is an increased risk of TB with age across all racial and ethnic groups. Rates were consistently higher in minority racial and ethnic groups than in non-Hispanic whites and were highest in Asians, Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, particularly in the adult age groups.[5]
  • Image 9 shows that in 2014, 85% of all reported TB cases occurred in racial and ethnic minorities, whereas 13% of cases occurred in non-Hispanic whites. Persons reporting two or more races accounted for 2% of all cases[5]
Image 7 - TB Case Rates by Race/Ethnicity, United States, 2003–2014- Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)[5]
Image 8 - TB Case Rates by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity, United States, 2014- Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)[5]
Image 9 - Reported TB Cases by Race/Ethnicity, United States, 2014- Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)[5]

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 "WHO 2016 TB Report" (PDF).
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 "Tuberculosis (TB)".
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 "Tuberculosis".
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Center for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/2014-surveillance-report_table4.pdf
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 "Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)" (PDF).
  6. ↑ Stead WW, Lofgren JP, Warren E, Thomas C (1985). "Tuberculosis as an endemic and nosocomial infection among the elderly in nursing homes". N Engl J Med. 312 (23): 1483–7. doi:10.1056/NEJM198506063122304. PMID 3990748.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 DAHL RH (1952). "[The first appearance of a pulmonary cavity after primary infection with relation to time and age]". Acta Tuberc Scand. 27 (1–2): 140–9. PMID 13007533.
  8. ↑ Stead WW (1967). "Pathogenesis of a first episode of chronic pulmonary tuberculosis in man: recrudescence of residuals of the primary infection or exogenous reinfection?". Am Rev Respir Dis. 95 (5): 729–45. PMID 4960690.
  9. ↑ "Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, July 1999. This is a Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This statement was endorsed by the Council of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. (IDSA), September 1999, and the sections of this statement". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 161 (4 Pt 2): S221–47. 2000. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.161.supplement_3.ats600. PMID 10764341.
  10. ↑ Stead WW, Kerby GR, Schlueter DP, Jordahl CW (1968). "The clinical spectrum of primary tuberculosis in adults. Confusion with reinfection in the pathogenesis of chronic tuberculosis". Ann Intern Med. 68 (4): 731–45. PMID 5642961.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Center for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2014/pdfs/2014-surveillance-report_table17.pdf

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