Sandbox spinalcord: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 19:19, 1 March 2018

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

Lower gastrointestinal bleeding, commonly abbreviated LGIB, refers to any form of bleeding in the lower gastrointestinal tract.

Causes

Coagulopathy - specifically a bleeding diathesis
Colitis
Hemorrhoids
Angiodysplasia
Neoplasm - cancer
Diverticular disease - diverticulosis, diverticulitis

Diagnosis

The following suggest an LGIB:

Melena and a negative oesophagogastroduodenoscopy
Hematochezia
Fecal occult blood

The following may suggest an LGIB:

Anemia

Related Chapter

Blood in stools

Abdominal pain

Yes

No

Fever

Rectal pain

Yes

No

H/O of constipation

No

Yes

No

Yes

Weightloss

Diverticulosis

Hemodynamic status

Diverticulitis

No

Yes

Stable

Unstable

Polyps

Colon cancer

No

Yes

Weight Loss

Anal fissure
External Hemmrhoids

Yes

No

Rectal cancer
Colon cancer

Angiodysplasia
Polyps

Management

Hepatic adenoma

Management of hepatic adenoma depends upon:

Symptoms
Size
Number
Location
Certainty of the diagnosis

Asymptomatic woman on OCPs with a small adenoma

The European Association for Study of the Liver recommends

Discontinuation of contraceptive medication
Close observation of the lesion with repeated imaging and alpha fetoprotein.
- Contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging at a six month interval to determine if there is regression of a large adenoma to less than 5 cm.
Patients with hepatic adenomas that do not resolve or that enlarge after six months of observation should undergo treatment.

Symptomatic patients and those with large adenomas

Surgical resection is recommended for all symptomatic patients with hepatic adenoma and those with large lesions (>5 cm).
Surgical options include :
- Enucleation
- Resection
- Liver transplantation

Nonsurgical interventions include
- Transarterial embolization
- Radiofrequency ablation

Hepatic Hemangioma

Asymptomatic patients
- Patients with lesions <1.5 cm, are reassured and observed.
- Follow-up imaging in patients with hemangiomas ≤5 cm in size is usually not recommended.
- Patients with rapid growth of a hemangioma or with lesions >5 cm it is recommended to repeat imaging in 6 to 12 months.
- It is recommended not perform additional imaging if there is no change in the size of the lesion.
Symptomatic patients
- Patients who have pain or symptoms suggestive of extrinsic compression of adjacent structures should be considered for surgical options.
- Surgical options include
  - Liver resection
  - Enucleation
  - Hepatic artery ligation
  - Liver transplantation
- Non-surgical techniques include
  - Hepatic artery embolization
  - Radiotherapy
  - Interferon alfa-2a

Focal nodular hyperplasia

Due to their benign nature of focal nodular hyperplasia, there is

Follow-up studies at three and six months will often be sufficient to confirm the stability of the lesion and its benign nature, after which no long-term follow-up is required routinely.
Surgery should be reserved for symptomatic FNH lesion.

Parasitic Infection		Mode of infection		Epidemiology	Clinical manifestations	Diagnosis	Treatment
Disease	Parasite	Mode of infection	Incidence	Geographic distrubution	Clinical manifestations	Diagnosis	Treatment
Ascariasis	Ascaris lumbricoides	Ingestion of Ascaris eggs secreted in the feces of humans or pigs.^[1] Ingesting uncooked pig or chicken liver with the larvae.	Ascariasis affects at least 1 billion people worldwide and about 4 million people in the United States.^[2]	Asia Africa South America	Abdominal discomfort Anorexia Nausea and vomiting Diarrhea Intestinal obstruction	Stool microscopy Peripheral eosinophilia Barium swallow	Albendazole Mebendazole Ivermectin
Necatoriasis	Necator americanus	Skin contact	Approximately 800 million people are infected with hookworms worldwide.^[3]	Brazil Texas Africa China Southwest Pacific islands India Southeast Asia	Acute ^[4] Nausea and vomiting Diarrhea Epigastric pain Increased flatulence Chronic^[5] Bloody stools Anemia LBW in pregnant women	Stool microscopy^[6] Peripheral eosinophilia	Albendazole Mebendazole^[7] Pyrantel pamoate^[8]
Giardiasis	Giardia lamblia	Ingestion of raw or undercooked food contaminated with cysts.^[9]	Approximately, 15,223 cases were reported in the United States in 2012.^[10]	Worldwide infection Among mountains hikers	Asymptomatic^[11] Acute Diarrhea Malaise Steatorrhea Abdominal cramps Bloating Nausea Weight loss. Chronic Lose stools Malabsorption Steatorrhea Weight loss Fatigue	Antigen detection assays Fluorescein-tagged monoclonal antibodies Immunochromatographic assays^[12] Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays Nucleic acid amplification^[13]assays (NAAT) Stool microscopy	Tinidazole^[14] Nitazoxanide
Fasciolosis	Fasciola Hepaticum			Central and South America Asia (China, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Thailand) Europe (Portugal, France, Spain, and Turkey) Africa The Middle East.	Acute liver phase Fever Anorexia Nausea and vomiting Myalgia Cough Right upper quadrant pain Hematomas of the liver Jaundice Hepatomegaly.^[15] Chronic biliary phase Asymptomatic^[16] Common bile duct obstruction Pancreatitis	Microscopy^[17] Stools Bile Duodenal aspiration Peripheral eosinophilia may disappear.^[18] Serology Indirect hemagglutination Complement fixation Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay	Triclabendazole Bithionol Nitazoxanide
Schistosomiasis	S. mansoni S. japonicum S. haematobium	Infection can occur by: Penetration of the human skin by cercaria Handling of contaminated soil Consumption of contaminated water or food sources (e.g, unwashed garden vegetables)	Approximately 200 million people are infected annually with 200,000 deaths per year.	Sub-Saharan Africa.^[19]	Acute schistosomiasis syndrome ^[20] Fever and chills Urticaria Angioedema Myalgias Arthralgias Dry cough Diarrhea Abdominal pain Headache.^[21] Chronic schistosomias^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] Intestinal schistosomiasis Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis^[26]^[27] Pulmonary schistosomiasis^[28] Genitourinary schistosomiasis	Stool microscopy^[29] Serologic tests include: Indirect hemagglutination Complement fixation Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay PCR	Praziquantel^[30] Oxamniquine
Strongyloidiasis	Strongyloidis Stercoralis	Infection is contracted via direct contact with contaminated soil during agricultural, domestic, and recreational activities	Approximately 30–100 million infected persons worldwide	Tropical and subtropical regions	Hyperinfection syndrome Fever Nausea and vomiting Anorexia Diarrhea Abdominal pain Dyspnea Wheezing Hemoptysis Cough	Aspiration of duodenojejunal fluid is sometimes used to detect^[31] Stool microscopy PCR, ELISA	Ivermectin^[32] Albendazole^[33]
Amoebiais	E. Histolytica	Transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contaminated drinking water or food. Direct contact with infected individuals.	Annual incidence of amoebiasis is approximately 50 million cases.^[34]^[35]^[36]	India Africa Mexico Parts of Central and South America	Asymptomatic Mild diarrhea to severe dysentery. Fulminant amebic colitis. Weight loss Amebic dysentery	Stool microscopy Antigen testing PCR	Metronidazole Tinidazole Paromomycin Diloxanide furoate Iodoquinol
Taeniasis	Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) Taenia solium, ( pork tapeworm).^[37]	Consumption of undercooked beef	Approximately 50 million human have cysticercosis.	Europe Parts of Asia.	Most human carriers are asymptomatic. Symptoms may include Nausea Anorexia Epigastric pain	Stool microscopy Peripheral eosinophilia ELISA PCR	Albendazole
Trichuriasis	Trichuris trichiura	Ingestion of embryonatedeggs from contaminated drinking water and food.		Endemic in tropical and subtropical countries. Southern United States Incidence and prevalence rates are highest in children living in Sub-Saharan Africa Asia Latin America Caribbean	Asymptomatic^[38] Loose stool which may contain mucus and blood Nocturnal stooling Rectal prolapse	Stool microscopy Proctoscopy Demonstrates adult worms protruding from the bowel mucosa. Eosinophilia Polymerase chain reaction	Mebendazole^[39] 500 mg PO q24h X 3 day (or) 100 mg PO q12h x 2 days Albendazole^[40] 400 mg POq24h
Hymenolepiasis	Hymenolepis nana	Ingestion of infected eggs		Most common in temperate zones^[41] South Europe Russia India US Latin America.	Asymptomatic^[42] Heavy infections with >1000 worms can occur Crampy abdominal pain Diarrhea Anorexia Fatigue Pruritus ani	Stool microscopy FLOTAC method^[43]	Praziquantel^[44] Prompt family screening or empiric treatment^[45]

↑ Permin A, Henningsen E, Murrell KD, Roepstorff A, Nansen P (2000). "Pigs become infected after ingestion of livers and lungs from chickens infected with Ascaris of pig origin". Int J Parasitol. 30 (7): 867–8. PMID 10899534.
↑ Betson M, Nejsum P, Bendall RP, Deb RM, Stothard JR (2014). "Molecular epidemiology of ascariasis: a global perspective on the transmission dynamics of Ascaris in people and pigs". J Infect Dis. 210 (6): 932–41. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu193. PMC 4136802. PMID 24688073.
↑ Bradbury RS, Hii SF, Harrington H, Speare R, Traub R (2017). "Ancylostoma ceylanicum Hookworm in the Solomon Islands". Emerg Infect Dis. 23 (2): 252–257. doi:10.3201/eid2302.160822. PMC 5324822. PMID 28098526.
↑ Nawalinski TA, Schad GA (1974). "Arrested development in Ancylostoma duodenale: course of a self-induced infection in man". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 23 (5): 895–8. PMID 4451228.
↑ Chhabra P, Bhasin DK (2017). "Hookworm-Induced Obscure Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 15 (11): e161–e162. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2017.02.034. PMID 28300694.
↑ McKenna ML, McAtee S, Bryan PE, Jeun R, Ward T, Kraus J; et al. (2017). "Human Intestinal Parasite Burden and Poor Sanitation in Rural Alabama". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 97 (5): 1623–1628. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0396. PMID 29016326.
↑ Genta RM, Woods KL (1991). "Endoscopic diagnosis of hookworm infection". Gastrointest Endosc. 37 (4): 476–8. PMID 1916173.
↑ Serre-Delcor N, Treviño B, Monge B, Salvador F, Torrus D, Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez B; et al. (2017). "Eosinophilia prevalence and related factors in travel and immigrants of the network +REDIVI". Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 35 (10): 617–623. doi:10.1016/j.eimc.2016.02.024. PMID 27032297.
↑ Quick R, Paugh K, Addiss D, Kobayashi J, Baron R (1992). "Restaurant-associated outbreak of giardiasis". J Infect Dis. 166 (3): 673–6. PMID 1500757.
↑ Muhsen K, Levine MM (2012). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Giardia lamblia and endemic pediatric diarrhea in developing countries". Clin Infect Dis. 55 Suppl 4: S271–93. doi:10.1093/cid/cis762. PMC 3502312. PMID 23169940.
↑ Pickering LK, Woodward WE, DuPont HL, Sullivan P (1984). "Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in children in day care centers". J Pediatr. 104 (4): 522–6. PMID 6707812.
↑ Lengerich EJ, Addiss DG, Juranek DD (1994). "Severe giardiasis in the United States". Clin Infect Dis. 18 (5): 760–3. PMID 8075266.
↑ Claas EC, Burnham CA, Mazzulli T, Templeton K, Topin F (2013). "Performance of the xTAG® gastrointestinal pathogen panel, a multiplex molecular assay for simultaneous detection of bacterial, viral, and parasitic causes of infectious gastroenteritis". J Microbiol Biotechnol. 23 (7): 1041–5. PMID 23711521.
↑ Fung HB, Doan TL (2005). "Tinidazole: a nitroimidazole antiprotozoal agent". Clin Ther. 27 (12): 1859–84. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2005.12.012. PMID 16507373.
↑ Chan CW, Lam SK (1987). "Diseases caused by liver flukes and cholangiocarcinoma". Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol. 1 (2): 297–318. PMID 2822181.
↑ Marcos LA, Terashima A, Gotuzzo E (2008). "Update on hepatobiliary flukes: fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis and clonorchiasis". Curr Opin Infect Dis. 21 (5): 523–30. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e32830f9818. PMID 18725803.
↑ Prociv P, Walker JC, Whitby M (1992). "Human ectopic fascioliasis in Australia: first case reports". Med J Aust. 156 (5): 349–51. PMID 1588869.
↑ Kaya M, Beştaş R, Cetin S (2011). "Clinical presentation and management of Fasciola hepatica infection: single-center experience". World J Gastroenterol. 17 (44): 4899–904. doi:10.3748/wjg.v17.i44.4899. PMC 3235633. PMID 22171131.
↑ Gower CM, Gouvras AN, Lamberton PH, Deol A, Shrivastava J, Mutombo PN; et al. (2013). "Population genetic structure of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium from across six sub-Saharan African countries: implications for epidemiology, evolution and control". Acta Trop. 128 (2): 261–74. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.09.014. PMID 23041540.
↑ Jauréguiberry S, Ansart S, Perez L, Danis M, Bricaire F, Caumes E (2007). "Acute neuroschistosomiasis: two cases associated with cerebral vasculitis". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 76 (5): 964–6. PMID 17488923.
↑ Rocha MO, Rocha RL, Pedroso ER, Greco DB, Ferreira CS, Lambertucci JR; et al. (1995). "Pulmonary manifestations in the initial phase of schistosomiasis mansoni". Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 37 (4): 311–8. PMID 8599059.
↑ Lucey DR, Maguire JH (1993). "Schistosomiasis". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 7 (3): 635–53. PMID 8254164.
↑ Stothard JR, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Betson M, Bustinduy A, Reinhard-Rupp J (2013). "Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated!". Trends Parasitol. 29 (4): 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2013.02.001. PMC 3878762. PMID 23465781.
↑ Gabbi C, Bertolotti M, Iori R, Rivasi F, Stanzani C, Maurantonio M; et al. (2006). "Acute abdomen associated with schistosomiasis of the appendix". Dig Dis Sci. 51 (1): 215–7. doi:10.1007/s10620-006-3111-5. PMID 16416239.
↑ Mu A, Fernandes I, Phillips D (2016). "A 57-Year-Old Woman With a Cecal Mass". Clin Infect Dis. 63 (5): 703–5. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw413. PMID 27521443.
↑ Homeida M, Abdel-Gadir AF, Cheever AW, Bennett JL, Arbab BM, Ibrahium SZ; et al. (1988). "Diagnosis of pathologically confirmed Symmers' periportal fibrosis by ultrasonography: a prospective blinded study". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 38 (1): 86–91. PMID 3124648.
↑ Dessein AJ, Hillaire D, Elwali NE, Marquet S, Mohamed-Ali Q, Mirghani A; et al. (1999). "Severe hepatic fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni infection is controlled by a major locus that is closely linked to the interferon-gamma receptor gene". Am J Hum Genet. 65 (3): 709–21. doi:10.1086/302526. PMC 1377977. PMID 10441577.
↑ Sarwat AK, Tag el Din MA, Bassiouni M, Ashmawi SS (1986). "Schistosomiasis of the lung". J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 16 (1): 359–66. PMID 3722898.
↑ Mahmoud AA (1982). "The ecology of eosinophils in schistosomiasis". J Infect Dis. 145 (5): 613–22. PMID 7042854.
↑ Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Basso A, Guidi A (2014). "Schistosomiasis control: praziquantel forever?". Mol Biochem Parasitol. 195 (1): 23–9. doi:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.06.002. PMID 24955523.
↑ Carroll SM, Karthigasu KT, Grove DI (1981). "Serodiagnosis of human strongyloidiasis by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 75 (5): 706–9. PMID 7036430.
↑ Zaha O, Hirata T, Kinjo F, Saito A, Fukuhara H (2002). "Efficacy of ivermectin for chronic strongyloidiasis: two single doses given 2 weeks apart". J Infect Chemother. 8 (1): 94–8. doi:10.1007/s101560200013. PMID 11957127.
↑ Archibald LK, Beeching NJ, Gill GV, Bailey JW, Bell DR (1993). "Albendazole is effective treatment for chronic strongyloidiasis". Q J Med. 86 (3): 191–5. PMID 8483992.
↑ Valenzuela O, Morán P, Gómez A, Cordova K, Corrales N, Cardoza J; et al. (2007). "Epidemiology of amoebic liver abscess in Mexico: the case of Sonora". Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 101 (6): 533–8. doi:10.1179/136485907X193851. PMID 17716437.
↑ van Hal SJ, Stark DJ, Fotedar R, Marriott D, Ellis JT, Harkness JL (2007). "Amoebiasis: current status in Australia". Med J Aust. 186 (8): 412–6. PMID 17437396.
↑ Ximénez C, Morán P, Rojas L, Valadez A, Gómez A (2009). "Reassessment of the epidemiology of amebiasis: state of the art". Infect Genet Evol. 9 (6): 1023–32. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2009.06.008. PMID 19540361.
↑ Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G (1998). "Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children". Lancet. 352 (9134): 1103–8. PMID 9798586.
↑ Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G (1998). "Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children". Lancet. 352 (9134): 1103–8. PMID 9798586.
↑ Rossignol JF, Maisonneuve H (1984). "Benzimidazoles in the treatment of trichuriasis: a review". Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 78 (2): 135–44. PMID 6378109.
↑ Steinmann P, Utzinger J, Du ZW, Jiang JY, Chen JX, Hattendorf J; et al. (2011). "Efficacy of single-dose and triple-dose albendazole and mebendazole against soil-transmitted helminths and Taenia spp.: a randomized controlled trial". PLoS One. 6 (9): e25003. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025003. PMC 3181256. PMID 21980373.
↑ Utzinger J, Botero-Kleiven S, Castelli F, Chiodini PL, Edwards H, Köhler N; et al. (2010). "Microscopic diagnosis of sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin-fixed stool samples for helminths and intestinal protozoa: a comparison among European reference laboratories". Clin Microbiol Infect. 16 (3): 267–73. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02782.x. PMID 19456836.
↑ Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo CA, Hidron A, Eberhard ML, Mathison BA; et al. (2015). "Malignant Transformation of Hymenolepis nana in a Human Host". N Engl J Med. 373 (19): 1845–52. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1505892. PMID 26535513.
↑ Steinmann P, Cringoli G, Bruschi F, Matthys B, Lohourignon LK, Castagna B; et al. (2012). "FLOTAC for the diagnosis of Hymenolepis spp. infection: proof-of-concept and comparing diagnostic accuracy with other methods". Parasitol Res. 111 (2): 749–54. doi:10.1007/s00436-012-2895-9. PMID 22461006.
↑ Ohnishi K, Sakamoto N, Kobayashi K, Iwabuchi S, Nakamura-Uchiyama F (2013). "Therapeutic effect of praziquantel against Taeniasis asiatica". Int J Infect Dis. 17 (8): e656–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2013.02.028. PMID 23618773.
↑ Pawłowski ZS (1990). "Efficacy of low doses of praziquantel in taeniasis". Acta Trop. 48 (2): 83–8. PMID 1980572.

[pmid10899534-1] Permin A, Henningsen E, Murrell KD, Roepstorff A, Nansen P (2000). "Pigs become infected after ingestion of livers and lungs from chickens infected with Ascaris of pig origin". Int J Parasitol. 30 (7): 867–8. PMID 10899534.

[pmid24688073-2] Betson M, Nejsum P, Bendall RP, Deb RM, Stothard JR (2014). "Molecular epidemiology of ascariasis: a global perspective on the transmission dynamics of Ascaris in people and pigs". J Infect Dis. 210 (6): 932–41. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu193. PMC 4136802. PMID 24688073.

[pmid28098526-3] Bradbury RS, Hii SF, Harrington H, Speare R, Traub R (2017). "Ancylostoma ceylanicum Hookworm in the Solomon Islands". Emerg Infect Dis. 23 (2): 252–257. doi:10.3201/eid2302.160822. PMC 5324822. PMID 28098526.

[pmid4451228-4] Nawalinski TA, Schad GA (1974). "Arrested development in Ancylostoma duodenale: course of a self-induced infection in man". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 23 (5): 895–8. PMID 4451228.

[pmid28300694-5] Chhabra P, Bhasin DK (2017). "Hookworm-Induced Obscure Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 15 (11): e161–e162. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2017.02.034. PMID 28300694.

[pmid29016326-6] McKenna ML, McAtee S, Bryan PE, Jeun R, Ward T, Kraus J; et al. (2017). "Human Intestinal Parasite Burden and Poor Sanitation in Rural Alabama". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 97 (5): 1623–1628. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0396. PMID 29016326.

[pmid1916173-7] Genta RM, Woods KL (1991). "Endoscopic diagnosis of hookworm infection". Gastrointest Endosc. 37 (4): 476–8. PMID 1916173.

[pmid27032297-8] Serre-Delcor N, Treviño B, Monge B, Salvador F, Torrus D, Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez B; et al. (2017). "Eosinophilia prevalence and related factors in travel and immigrants of the network +REDIVI". Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 35 (10): 617–623. doi:10.1016/j.eimc.2016.02.024. PMID 27032297.

[pmid1500757-9] Quick R, Paugh K, Addiss D, Kobayashi J, Baron R (1992). "Restaurant-associated outbreak of giardiasis". J Infect Dis. 166 (3): 673–6. PMID 1500757.

[pmid23169940-10] Muhsen K, Levine MM (2012). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Giardia lamblia and endemic pediatric diarrhea in developing countries". Clin Infect Dis. 55 Suppl 4: S271–93. doi:10.1093/cid/cis762. PMC 3502312. PMID 23169940.

[pmid6707812-11] Pickering LK, Woodward WE, DuPont HL, Sullivan P (1984). "Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in children in day care centers". J Pediatr. 104 (4): 522–6. PMID 6707812.

[pmid8075266-12] Lengerich EJ, Addiss DG, Juranek DD (1994). "Severe giardiasis in the United States". Clin Infect Dis. 18 (5): 760–3. PMID 8075266.

[pmid23711521-13] Claas EC, Burnham CA, Mazzulli T, Templeton K, Topin F (2013). "Performance of the xTAG® gastrointestinal pathogen panel, a multiplex molecular assay for simultaneous detection of bacterial, viral, and parasitic causes of infectious gastroenteritis". J Microbiol Biotechnol. 23 (7): 1041–5. PMID 23711521.

[pmid16507373-14] Fung HB, Doan TL (2005). "Tinidazole: a nitroimidazole antiprotozoal agent". Clin Ther. 27 (12): 1859–84. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2005.12.012. PMID 16507373.

[pmid2822181-15] Chan CW, Lam SK (1987). "Diseases caused by liver flukes and cholangiocarcinoma". Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol. 1 (2): 297–318. PMID 2822181.

[pmid18725803-16] Marcos LA, Terashima A, Gotuzzo E (2008). "Update on hepatobiliary flukes: fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis and clonorchiasis". Curr Opin Infect Dis. 21 (5): 523–30. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e32830f9818. PMID 18725803.

[pmid1588869-17] Prociv P, Walker JC, Whitby M (1992). "Human ectopic fascioliasis in Australia: first case reports". Med J Aust. 156 (5): 349–51. PMID 1588869.

[pmid22171131-18] Kaya M, Beştaş R, Cetin S (2011). "Clinical presentation and management of Fasciola hepatica infection: single-center experience". World J Gastroenterol. 17 (44): 4899–904. doi:10.3748/wjg.v17.i44.4899. PMC 3235633. PMID 22171131.

[pmid23041540-19] Gower CM, Gouvras AN, Lamberton PH, Deol A, Shrivastava J, Mutombo PN; et al. (2013). "Population genetic structure of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium from across six sub-Saharan African countries: implications for epidemiology, evolution and control". Acta Trop. 128 (2): 261–74. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.09.014. PMID 23041540.

[pmid17488923-20] Jauréguiberry S, Ansart S, Perez L, Danis M, Bricaire F, Caumes E (2007). "Acute neuroschistosomiasis: two cases associated with cerebral vasculitis". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 76 (5): 964–6. PMID 17488923.

[pmid8599059-21] Rocha MO, Rocha RL, Pedroso ER, Greco DB, Ferreira CS, Lambertucci JR; et al. (1995). "Pulmonary manifestations in the initial phase of schistosomiasis mansoni". Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 37 (4): 311–8. PMID 8599059.

[pmid8254164-22] Lucey DR, Maguire JH (1993). "Schistosomiasis". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 7 (3): 635–53. PMID 8254164.

[pmid23465781-23] Stothard JR, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Betson M, Bustinduy A, Reinhard-Rupp J (2013). "Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated!". Trends Parasitol. 29 (4): 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2013.02.001. PMC 3878762. PMID 23465781.

[pmid16416239-24] Gabbi C, Bertolotti M, Iori R, Rivasi F, Stanzani C, Maurantonio M; et al. (2006). "Acute abdomen associated with schistosomiasis of the appendix". Dig Dis Sci. 51 (1): 215–7. doi:10.1007/s10620-006-3111-5. PMID 16416239.

[pmid27521443-25] Mu A, Fernandes I, Phillips D (2016). "A 57-Year-Old Woman With a Cecal Mass". Clin Infect Dis. 63 (5): 703–5. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw413. PMID 27521443.

[pmid3124648-26] Homeida M, Abdel-Gadir AF, Cheever AW, Bennett JL, Arbab BM, Ibrahium SZ; et al. (1988). "Diagnosis of pathologically confirmed Symmers' periportal fibrosis by ultrasonography: a prospective blinded study". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 38 (1): 86–91. PMID 3124648.

[pmid10441577-27] Dessein AJ, Hillaire D, Elwali NE, Marquet S, Mohamed-Ali Q, Mirghani A; et al. (1999). "Severe hepatic fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni infection is controlled by a major locus that is closely linked to the interferon-gamma receptor gene". Am J Hum Genet. 65 (3): 709–21. doi:10.1086/302526. PMC 1377977. PMID 10441577.

[pmid3722898-28] Sarwat AK, Tag el Din MA, Bassiouni M, Ashmawi SS (1986). "Schistosomiasis of the lung". J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 16 (1): 359–66. PMID 3722898.

[pmid7042854-29] Mahmoud AA (1982). "The ecology of eosinophils in schistosomiasis". J Infect Dis. 145 (5): 613–22. PMID 7042854.

[pmid24955523-30] Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Basso A, Guidi A (2014). "Schistosomiasis control: praziquantel forever?". Mol Biochem Parasitol. 195 (1): 23–9. doi:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.06.002. PMID 24955523.

[pmid7036430-31] Carroll SM, Karthigasu KT, Grove DI (1981). "Serodiagnosis of human strongyloidiasis by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 75 (5): 706–9. PMID 7036430.

[pmid11957127-32] Zaha O, Hirata T, Kinjo F, Saito A, Fukuhara H (2002). "Efficacy of ivermectin for chronic strongyloidiasis: two single doses given 2 weeks apart". J Infect Chemother. 8 (1): 94–8. doi:10.1007/s101560200013. PMID 11957127.

[pmid8483992-33] Archibald LK, Beeching NJ, Gill GV, Bailey JW, Bell DR (1993). "Albendazole is effective treatment for chronic strongyloidiasis". Q J Med. 86 (3): 191–5. PMID 8483992.

[pmid17716437-34] Valenzuela O, Morán P, Gómez A, Cordova K, Corrales N, Cardoza J; et al. (2007). "Epidemiology of amoebic liver abscess in Mexico: the case of Sonora". Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 101 (6): 533–8. doi:10.1179/136485907X193851. PMID 17716437.

[pmid17437396-35] van Hal SJ, Stark DJ, Fotedar R, Marriott D, Ellis JT, Harkness JL (2007). "Amoebiasis: current status in Australia". Med J Aust. 186 (8): 412–6. PMID 17437396.

[pmid19540361-36] Ximénez C, Morán P, Rojas L, Valadez A, Gómez A (2009). "Reassessment of the epidemiology of amebiasis: state of the art". Infect Genet Evol. 9 (6): 1023–32. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2009.06.008. PMID 19540361.

[pmid9798586-37] Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G (1998). "Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children". Lancet. 352 (9134): 1103–8. PMID 9798586.

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[pmid21980373-40] Steinmann P, Utzinger J, Du ZW, Jiang JY, Chen JX, Hattendorf J; et al. (2011). "Efficacy of single-dose and triple-dose albendazole and mebendazole against soil-transmitted helminths and Taenia spp.: a randomized controlled trial". PLoS One. 6 (9): e25003. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025003. PMC 3181256. PMID 21980373.

[pmid19456836-41] Utzinger J, Botero-Kleiven S, Castelli F, Chiodini PL, Edwards H, Köhler N; et al. (2010). "Microscopic diagnosis of sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin-fixed stool samples for helminths and intestinal protozoa: a comparison among European reference laboratories". Clin Microbiol Infect. 16 (3): 267–73. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02782.x. PMID 19456836.

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-==Medical Management==
+__NOTOC__
-Hyperthyroidism caused by toxic adenoma rarely remits spontaneously. The mainstay of treatment for most patients with toxic adenoma includes radioiodine, anti thyroid drugs or surgery.
-===RADIOACTIVE IODINE===
-In United States radioactive iodine is the preferred choice of treatment for patients with toxic adenoma.
-====Indications====
-Radioactive iodine is generally preferred over surgery when there is
-*No suspicion of coexisting thyroid malignancy
-*No large goiter threatening local compressive symptoms
-*No other reason for neck surgery (e.g., primary hyperparathyroidism)
-*No imperative for immediate cure, and whenever the patient’s general health makes him or her a poor candidate for surgery.  <Ref>
-===Contraindications===
-*Pregnant women
-*Children and adolescents(associated with risk of thyroid cancer)<ref>
-It is controversial whether the administered 131 I dose should be determined by some form of simplified dosimetry or an arbitrary dosage used in all patients.
+{{CMG}}
-*Typical dosimetric schemes consider gland size, its fractional uptake of a preceding tracer dose, and a standard administered dose constant (e.g., 0.16 mCi/g of estimated hyperfunctioning tissue). However, controlled studies have failed to show that calculated administered doses of radioiodine are superior to an empirically chosen constant dose for all patients (e.g., 15 mCi).  113 114 115 This is probably due to the result of imprecision in the estimated mass and heterogeneous radioisotope distribution within and lack of data about 131 I retention time in the functioning thyroid tissue. Although radioiodine is largely cleared from the patient within 14 days, resolution of hyperthyroidism typically requires 4 to 8 weeks. Consequently, it may be prudent to use temporary antithyroid drug treatment to achieve euthyroidism, discontinue it for several days before and after 131 I administration, and then resume therapy to maintain normal thyroid function while waiting for the effect of the radioiodine, particularly in older patients and those with cardiac disease. Because propylthiouracil (PTU) has been shown to induce relative resistance to radioiodine in those with Graves’ disease and methimazole has not, the latter is the antithyroid drug of choice for such adjunctive therapy.  116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123  One randomized controlled trial has also confirmed this effect of PTU in toxic multinodular goiter.  124  With typical administered radioiodine doses, such as 10 to 30 mCi of 131 I, hyperthyroidism is cured in 62% to 98% of patients with toxic adenoma or toxic nodular goiter.  125 126 127 128 129 130  The remainder almost invariably respond to a second radioiodine dose, which is typically given no sooner than 4 to 6 months later. Predictors of relative resistance to radioiodine therapy include large goiters and those with a higher fractional thyroid uptake of radioiodine.  131
+==Overview==
-====Complications====
+'''Lower gastrointestinal bleeding''', commonly abbreviated '''LGIB''', refers to any form of bleeding in the [[lower gastrointestinal tract]].
-Potential adverse effects of 131 I therapy for toxic nodular goiter include
-*Radiation thyroiditis
-*Postablative hypothyroidism.
-====Radiation thyroiditis =====
-*Radiation thyroiditis presents with anterior neck pain in the week after therapy and exacerbation of thyrotoxicosis because of the release of preformed thyroid hormone from the gland, which typically occurs 2 to 8 weeks after treatment.
-*Pretreatment with an antithyroid drug has been shown to decrease the severity of thyrotoxicosis caused by radiation thyroiditis in Graves’ disease,  132 133 134 135  but this has not been established for toxic nodular goiter.
-*Thyroiditis-related gland swelling with potential worsening of compressive symptoms is a concern that has not actually been realized in studies of radioiodine therapy for nodular goiter.  136 137
-*Long term, thyroid volume typically decreases by about 40% after 131 I treatment.  138 139
-====Postablative hypothyroidism====
-*The incidence of postablative hypothyroidism after radioiodine therapy has been reported to be 25% to 50%, which is lower than that encountered after treatment of patients with Graves’ disease.
-*This is presumably because suppressed extranodular thyroid tissue does not take up radioiodine.
-*Radioisotopic distribution within functioning tissue can also be heterogeneous.
-*Postablative hypothyroidism is more common when higher doses of radioactive iodine are administered.
-===RECOMBINANT THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE–STIMULATED 131 I Therapy===
+==Causes==
+*[[Coagulopathy]] - specifically a [[bleeding diathesis]]
+*[[Colitis]]
+**[[ischaemic colitis]]
+**[[ulcerative colitis]]
+**[[infectious colitis]]
+***[[E. coli O157:H7]]
+***[[Shigella]]
+***[[C. difficile]]
+***[[Campylobacter jejuni]]
+*[[Hemorrhoids]]
+*[[Angiodysplasia]]
+*[[Neoplasm]] - cancer
+*[[Diverticular disease]] - diverticulosis, diverticulitis
-The relatively low fractional uptake of radioiodine by nodular goiters can limit the effectiveness of 131 I therapy and increase the administered dose requirement. Consequently, in recent years, recombinant TSH (thyrotropin alfa, rTSH, Thyrogen) has been investigated as an off-label approach to increasing thyroidal radioiodine uptake for the treatment of hyperthyroidism and goiter size in patients with toxic nodular goiter. rTSH has also been used to facilitate goiter shrinkage with 131 I in patients with nontoxic nodular goiter, in whom rTSH permits a 50% to 60% reduction in the administered 131 I dose  143 144  while producing a more substantial decrease in goiter volume. Studies in nontoxic nodular goiter patients have demonstrated the importance of using a rTSH dose less than that used for thyroid cancer testing (e.g., a single 0.01- to 0.45-mg rTSH dose).  144 145 146  Larger rTSH doses have been reported to induce severe thyrotoxicosis or gland swelling with increased obstructive symptoms. rTSH-stimulated 131 I therapy has also been used for older patients with clinical or subclinical hyperthyroidism caused by large multinodular goiters. In such patients, the relatively low fractional uptake of radioiodine by the thyroid reduces the cure rate after 131 I. In one study of 41 patients with clinical or subclinical hyperthyroidism caused by large multinodular goiter, patients who were randomly assigned to receive 0.45 mg rTSH before 131 I had a greater reduction in goiter volume at 1 year, 58% versus 40%. However, rTSH pre-treated patients also had a higher rate of postradioiodine hypothyroidism, 65% versus 21%,  147  probably because rTSH enhanced uptake in previously suppressed regions of the gland. Because of its risk of exacerbating hyperthyroidism, rTSH is generally inadvisable when administering a larger 131 I dose is an option, especially in older patients and those with underlying heart disease.
+==Diagnosis==
+The following suggest an LGIB:
+*[[Melena]] and a negative [[oesophagogastroduodenoscopy]]
+*[[Hematochezia]]
+*[[Fecal occult blood]]
-===ANTITHYROID DRUGS===
+The following may suggest an LGIB:
-*The thionamide antithyroid drugs—methimazole and propylthiouracil in the United States and carbimazole in Europe and Asia—have limited roles in the management of patients with nontoxic nodular goiter.
+*[[Anemia]]
-*Unlike hyperthyroid Graves’ disease, thyroid autonomy in toxic nodular goiter rarely remits unless it has been provoked by an iodine load.
-*Furthermore, because of the substantial store of previously synthesized thyroid hormone that can be present in the large gland of a patient with toxic nodular goiter, thionamide therapy alone may not control hyperthyroidism completely for weeks or months.
-*Nonetheless, there remain certain indications for short-term antithyroid drug therapy. First, thionamides can be useful for the initial control of hyperthyroidism that is severe or complicates cardiac or other conditions in a fragile patient. By restoring euthyroidism, such thionamide pretreatment can then make subsequent surgery or radioiodine therapy safer. Second, PTU is the immediate treatment of choice for pregnant patients with hyperthyroidism, although toxic nodular goiter is rare in this population. Third, a time-limited course of antithyroid drugs can sometimes be useful to evaluate the clinical status of patients with subclinical hyperthyroidism who have nonspecific symptoms, such as nervousness or insomnia, that may or may not improve with definitive treatment of mild hyperthyroidism. If a patient experiences an improvement in symptoms or sense of well-being when thyroid function has been restored to normal on thionamide therapy, then the case for radioiodine therapy or surgery is stronger.
-The specific mechanisms of action, doses, and side effects of the thionamide antithyroid drugs have been extensively reviewed.
+==Related Chapter==
+* [[Fecal occult blood]]
+* [[Blood in stool]]
+* [[Rectal bleeding]]
+* [[Upper gastrointestinal bleeding]]
+<small>
+<div style="width: 55%;">
+{{familytree/start |summa|ry=Sample 1}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A01 | | | | | | A01=Blood in stools}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | }}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | M01 |M01=Abdominal pain }}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| }}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | N01 | | | | | | | N02 | | |N01=Yes|N02=No}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | |}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | O01 | | | | | | | O02 | |O01=Fever|O02=Rectal pain}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | }}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | P01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | P02 | | |!|P01=Yes|P02=No}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | }}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Q01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Q02 | | |`|-|-|.|Q01=H/O of constipation|Q02=H/O of constipation}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | |!||}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | B01 | | | | | | B02 | |!|B01=No|B02=Yes|}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | R01 | | | | | | | R02 | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | |!| R01=No|R02=Yes}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | C01 | | | | | | C02 | |!|C01=Weightloss|C02=Diverticulosis}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | S01 | | | | | | | S02 | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | | | | |!|S01=Hemodynamic status|S02=Diverticulitis| }}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | D01 | | | | | | D02 | | | | | |!|D01=No|D02=Yes}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |!|}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | T01 | | | | | | T02 | | | | | | | | | E01 | | | | | | E02 | | | | | |!|T01=Stable|T02=Unstable|E01=Polyps|E02=Colon cancer}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!|}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|'|}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | |}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|.|}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| |}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | X01 | | | | | | | X02 |X01=No|X02=Yes}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| |}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | U01 | | | | | | | U02 |U01=Weight Loss|U02=Anal fissure<br> External Hemmrhoids}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|.| |}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| }}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | C03 | | | | | | | | C04 |C03=Yes|C04=No|}}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | }}
+{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | D01 | | | | | | | | D02 |D01=Rectal cancer<br>Colon cancer|D02=Angiodysplasia<br>Polyps }}
+{{familytree/end}}
+</div>
+</small>
+== Management ==
+=== Hepatic adenoma ===
+Management of hepatic adenoma depends upon:
+* Symptoms
+* Size
+* Number
+* Location
+* Certainty of the diagnosis
+==== '''Asymptomatic woman on OCPs with a small adenoma''' ====
+The European Association for Study of the Liver recommends
+* Discontinuation of contraceptive medication
+* Close observation of the lesion with repeated imaging and alpha fetoprotein.
+** Contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging at a six month interval to determine if there is regression of a large adenoma to less than 5 cm.
+* Patients with hepatic adenomas that do not resolve or that enlarge after six months of observation should undergo treatment.
+==== Symptomatic patients and those with large adenomas ====
+* Surgical resection is recommended for all symptomatic patients with hepatic adenoma and those with large lesions (>5 cm).
+* Surgical options include :
+** Enucleation
+** Resection
+** Liver transplantation
+* Nonsurgical interventions include
+** Transarterial embolization
+** Radiofrequency ablation
+=== Hepatic Hemangioma ===
+* '''Asymptomatic patients'''
+** Patients with lesions <1.5 cm, are reassured and observed.
+** Follow-up imaging in patients with hemangiomas ≤5 cm in size is usually not recommended.
+** Patients with rapid growth of a hemangioma  or with lesions >5 cm it is recommended to repeat imaging in 6 to 12 months.
+** It is recommended not perform additional imaging if there is no change in the size of the lesion.
+* '''Symptomatic patients'''
+** Patients who have pain or symptoms suggestive of extrinsic compression of adjacent structures should be considered for surgical options.
+** Surgical options include
+*** Liver resection
+*** Enucleation
+*** Hepatic artery ligation
+*** Liver transplantation
+** Non-surgical techniques include
+*** Hepatic artery embolization
+*** Radiotherapy
+*** Interferon alfa-2a
+=== Focal nodular hyperplasia ===
+* Due to their benign nature of focal nodular hyperplasia, there is
+* Follow-up studies at three and six months will often be sufficient to confirm the stability of the lesion and its benign nature, after which no long-term follow-up is required routinely.
+* Surgery should be reserved for symptomatic FNH lesion.
+{| class="wikitable"
+! colspan="2" |Parasitic Infection
+! rowspan="2" |Mode of infection
+!
+!Epidemiology
+! rowspan="2" |'''Clinical manifestations'''
+! rowspan="2" |Diagnosis
+! rowspan="2" |Treatment
+|-
+!Disease
+!Parasite
+!Incidence
+!Geographic distrubution
+|-
+|[[Ascariasis]]
+|[[Ascaris lumbricoides|''Ascaris lumbricoides'']]
+|
+* Ingestion of [[Ascaris infection|Ascaris]] eggs secreted in the feces of humans or pigs.<ref name="pmid10899534">{{cite journal| author=Permin A, Henningsen E, Murrell KD, Roepstorff A, Nansen P| title=Pigs become infected after ingestion of livers and lungs from chickens infected with Ascaris of pig origin. | journal=Int J Parasitol | year= 2000 | volume= 30 | issue= 7 | pages= 867-8 | pmid=10899534 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10899534  }}</ref>
+* Ingesting uncooked pig or chicken liver with the larvae.
+|
+* Ascariasis affects at least 1 billion people worldwide and about 4 million people in the United States.<ref name="pmid24688073">{{cite journal| author=Betson M, Nejsum P, Bendall RP, Deb RM, Stothard JR| title=Molecular epidemiology of ascariasis: a global perspective on the transmission dynamics of Ascaris in people and pigs. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 2014 | volume= 210 | issue= 6 | pages= 932-41 | pmid=24688073 | doi=10.1093/infdis/jiu193 | pmc=4136802 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24688073  }}</ref>
+|
+* Asia
+* Africa
+* South America
+|
+* [[Abdominal discomfort]]
+* [[Anorexia]]
+* [[Nausea and vomiting]]
+* [[Diarrhea]]
+* [[Intestinal obstruction]]
+|
+* [[Stool examination|Stool microscopy]]
+* Peripheral [[eosinophilia]]
+* [[Barium swallow]]
+|
+* [[Albendazole]]
+* [[Mebendazole]]
+* [[Ivermectin]]
+|-
+|[[Necatoriasis]]
+| [[Necator americanus|''Necator americanus'']]
+|
+* Skin contact
+|
+* Approximately 800 million people are infected with [[hookworms]] worldwide.<ref name="pmid28098526">{{cite journal| author=Bradbury RS, Hii SF, Harrington H, Speare R, Traub R| title=Ancylostoma ceylanicum Hookworm in the Solomon Islands. | journal=Emerg Infect Dis | year= 2017 | volume= 23 | issue= 2 | pages= 252-257 | pmid=28098526 | doi=10.3201/eid2302.160822 | pmc=5324822 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28098526  }}</ref>
+|
+* Brazil
+* Texas
+* Africa
+* China
+* Southwest Pacific islands
+* India
+* Southeast Asia
+|
+* '''Acute <ref name="pmid4451228">{{cite journal| author=Nawalinski TA, Schad GA| title=Arrested development in Ancylostoma duodenale: course of a self-induced infection in man. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 1974 | volume= 23 | issue= 5 | pages= 895-8 | pmid=4451228 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4451228  }}</ref>'''
+** [[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]] and  [[Nausea and vomiting|vomiting]]
+** [[Diarrhea]]
+** Epigastric pain
+** Increased [[flatulence]]
+* '''Chronic<ref name="pmid28300694">{{cite journal| author=Chhabra P, Bhasin DK| title=Hookworm-Induced Obscure Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding. | journal=Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol | year= 2017 | volume= 15 | issue= 11 | pages= e161-e162 | pmid=28300694 | doi=10.1016/j.cgh.2017.02.034 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28300694  }}</ref>'''
+** [[Bloody stools]]
+** [[Anemia]]
+** [[Low birth weight|LBW]] in [[pregnant]] women
+|
+* Stool microscopy<ref name="pmid29016326">{{cite journal| author=McKenna ML, McAtee S, Bryan PE, Jeun R, Ward T, Kraus J et al.| title=Human Intestinal Parasite Burden and Poor Sanitation in Rural Alabama. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 2017 | volume= 97 | issue= 5 | pages= 1623-1628 | pmid=29016326 | doi=10.4269/ajtmh.17-0396 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29016326  }}</ref>
+* Peripheral [[eosinophilia]]
+|
+* [[Albendazole]]
+* [[Mebendazole]]<ref name="pmid1916173">{{cite journal| author=Genta RM, Woods KL| title=Endoscopic diagnosis of hookworm infection. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 1991 | volume= 37 | issue= 4 | pages= 476-8 | pmid=1916173 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1916173  }}</ref>
+* [[Pyrantel pamoate]]<ref name="pmid27032297">{{cite journal| author=Serre-Delcor N, Treviño B, Monge B, Salvador F, Torrus D, Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez B et al.| title=Eosinophilia prevalence and related factors in travel and immigrants of the network +REDIVI. | journal=Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin | year= 2017 | volume= 35 | issue= 10 | pages= 617-623 | pmid=27032297 | doi=10.1016/j.eimc.2016.02.024 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27032297  }}</ref>
+|-
+|[[Giardiasis]]
+|''[[Giardia lamblia]]''
+|
+* Ingestion of raw or undercooked food contaminated with [[cysts]].<ref name="pmid1500757">{{cite journal| author=Quick R, Paugh K, Addiss D, Kobayashi J, Baron R| title=Restaurant-associated outbreak of giardiasis. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 1992 | volume= 166 | issue= 3 | pages= 673-6 | pmid=1500757 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1500757  }}</ref>
+|
+* Approximately, 15,223 cases were reported in the United States in 2012.<ref name="pmid23169940">{{cite journal| author=Muhsen K, Levine MM| title=A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Giardia lamblia and endemic pediatric diarrhea in developing countries. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2012 | volume= 55 Suppl 4 | issue=  | pages= S271-93 | pmid=23169940 | doi=10.1093/cid/cis762 | pmc=3502312 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23169940  }}</ref>
+|
+* Worldwide infection
+* Among mountains hikers
+|
+* Asymptomatic<ref name="pmid6707812">{{cite journal| author=Pickering LK, Woodward WE, DuPont HL, Sullivan P| title=Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in children in day care centers. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 1984 | volume= 104 | issue= 4 | pages= 522-6 | pmid=6707812 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6707812  }}</ref>
+* Acute
+** [[Diarrhea]]
+** [[Malaise]]
+** [[Steatorrhea]]
+** [[Abdominal cramps]]
+** [[Bloating]]
+** [[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]]
+** [[Weight loss]].
+* Chronic
+** Lose stools
+** [[Malabsorption]]
+** [[Steatorrhea]]
+** [[Weight loss]]
+** [[Fatigue]]
+|
+* Antigen detection assays
+** [[Fluorescein]]-tagged [[monoclonal antibodies]]
+** Immunochromatographic assays<ref name="pmid8075266">{{cite journal| author=Lengerich EJ, Addiss DG, Juranek DD| title=Severe giardiasis in the United States. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1994 | volume= 18 | issue= 5 | pages= 760-3 | pmid=8075266 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8075266  }}</ref>
+** [[ELISA test|Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays]]
+* Nucleic acid amplification<ref name="pmid23711521">{{cite journal| author=Claas EC, Burnham CA, Mazzulli T, Templeton K, Topin F| title=Performance of the xTAG® gastrointestinal pathogen panel, a multiplex molecular assay for simultaneous detection of bacterial, viral, and parasitic causes of infectious gastroenteritis. | journal=J Microbiol Biotechnol | year= 2013 | volume= 23 | issue= 7 | pages= 1041-5 | pmid=23711521 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23711521  }}</ref>assays ([[NAAT]])
+* [[Stool examination|Stool microscopy]]
+|
+* [[Tinidazole]]<ref name="pmid16507373">{{cite journal| author=Fung HB, Doan TL| title=Tinidazole: a nitroimidazole antiprotozoal agent. | journal=Clin Ther | year= 2005 | volume= 27 | issue= 12 | pages= 1859-84 | pmid=16507373 | doi=10.1016/j.clinthera.2005.12.012 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16507373  }}</ref>
+* [[Nitazoxanide]]
+|-
+| [[Fasciolosis]]
+|''[[Fasciola hepatica|Fasciola Hepaticum]]''
+|
+|
+|
+* Central and South America
+* Asia (China, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Thailand)
+* Europe (Portugal, France, Spain, and Turkey)
+* Africa
+* The Middle East.
+|
+* Acute liver phase
+** [[Fever]]
+** [[Anorexia]]
+** Nausea and [[vomiting]]
+** [[Myalgia]]
+** [[Cough]]
+** Right upper quadrant pain
+** [[Hematoma|Hematomas]] of the [[liver]]
+** [[Jaundice]]
+** [[Hepatomegaly]].<ref name="pmid2822181">{{cite journal| author=Chan CW, Lam SK| title=Diseases caused by liver flukes and cholangiocarcinoma. | journal=Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol | year= 1987 | volume= 1 | issue= 2 | pages= 297-318 | pmid=2822181 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2822181  }}</ref>
+* Chronic [[biliary]] phase
+** Asymptomatic<ref name="pmid18725803">{{cite journal| author=Marcos LA, Terashima A, Gotuzzo E| title=Update on hepatobiliary flukes: fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis and clonorchiasis. | journal=Curr Opin Infect Dis | year= 2008 | volume= 21 | issue= 5 | pages= 523-30 | pmid=18725803 | doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e32830f9818 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18725803  }}</ref>
+** [[Common bile duct]] obstruction
+** [[Pancreatitis]]
+|
+* Microscopy<ref name="pmid1588869">{{cite journal| author=Prociv P, Walker JC, Whitby M| title=Human ectopic fascioliasis in Australia: first case reports. | journal=Med J Aust | year= 1992 | volume= 156 | issue= 5 | pages= 349-51 | pmid=1588869 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1588869  }}</ref>
+** Stools
+** Bile
+** Duodenal aspiration
+* Peripheral [[eosinophilia]] may disappear.<ref name="pmid22171131">{{cite journal| author=Kaya M, Beştaş R, Cetin S| title=Clinical presentation and management of Fasciola hepatica infection: single-center experience. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2011 | volume= 17 | issue= 44 | pages= 4899-904 | pmid=22171131 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v17.i44.4899 | pmc=3235633 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22171131  }}</ref>
+* Serology
+**[[Hemagglutination assay|Indirect hemagglutination]]
+**[[Complement fixation test|Complement fixation]]
+**[[Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)|Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]]
+|
+* [[Triclabendazole]]
+* [[Bithionol]]
+* [[Nitazoxanide]]
+|-
+|[[Schistosomiasis]]
+|
+* ''[[Schistosoma mansoni|S. mansoni]]''
+* ''[[Schistosoma japonicum|S. japonicum]]''
+* ''[[Schistosoma haematobium|S. haematobium]]''
+|
+Infection can occur by:
+* Penetration of the human skin by [[cercaria]]
+* Handling of contaminated soil
+* Consumption of contaminated water or food sources (e.g, unwashed garden vegetables)
+|
+* Approximately 200 million people are infected annually with 200,000 deaths per year.
+|Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="pmid23041540">{{cite journal| author=Gower CM, Gouvras AN, Lamberton PH, Deol A, Shrivastava J, Mutombo PN et al.| title=Population genetic structure of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium from across six sub-Saharan African countries: implications for epidemiology, evolution and control. | journal=Acta Trop | year= 2013 | volume= 128 | issue= 2 | pages= 261-74 | pmid=23041540 | doi=10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.09.014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23041540  }}</ref>
+|Acute schistosomiasis syndrome <ref name="pmid17488923">{{cite journal| author=Jauréguiberry S, Ansart S, Perez L, Danis M, Bricaire F, Caumes E| title=Acute neuroschistosomiasis: two cases associated with cerebral vasculitis. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 2007 | volume= 76 | issue= 5 | pages= 964-6 | pmid=17488923 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17488923  }}</ref>
+* [[Fever]] and [[chills]]
+* [[Urticaria]]
+* [[Angioedema]]
+* [[Myalgias]]
+* [[Arthralgias]]
+* Dry [[cough]]
+* [[Diarrhea]]
+* [[Abdominal pain]]
+* [[Headache|Headache.]]<ref name="pmid8599059">{{cite journal| author=Rocha MO, Rocha RL, Pedroso ER, Greco DB, Ferreira CS, Lambertucci JR et al.| title=Pulmonary manifestations in the initial phase of schistosomiasis mansoni. | journal=Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo | year= 1995 | volume= 37 | issue= 4 | pages= 311-8 | pmid=8599059 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8599059  }}</ref>
+Chronic schistosomias<ref name="pmid8254164">{{cite journal| author=Lucey DR, Maguire JH| title=Schistosomiasis. | journal=Infect Dis Clin North Am | year= 1993 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 635-53 | pmid=8254164 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8254164  }}</ref><ref name="pmid23465781">{{cite journal| author=Stothard JR, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Betson M, Bustinduy A, Reinhard-Rupp J| title=Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated! | journal=Trends Parasitol | year= 2013 | volume= 29 | issue= 4 | pages= 197-205 | pmid=23465781 | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2013.02.001 | pmc=3878762 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23465781  }}</ref><ref name="pmid16416239">{{cite journal| author=Gabbi C, Bertolotti M, Iori R, Rivasi F, Stanzani C, Maurantonio M et al.| title=Acute abdomen associated with schistosomiasis of the appendix. | journal=Dig Dis Sci | year= 2006 | volume= 51 | issue= 1 | pages= 215-7 | pmid=16416239 | doi=10.1007/s10620-006-3111-5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16416239  }}</ref><ref name="pmid27521443">{{cite journal| author=Mu A, Fernandes I, Phillips D| title=A 57-Year-Old Woman With a Cecal Mass. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2016 | volume= 63 | issue= 5 | pages= 703-5 | pmid=27521443 | doi=10.1093/cid/ciw413 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27521443  }}</ref>
+* Intestinal schistosomiasis
+* Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis<ref name="pmid3124648">{{cite journal| author=Homeida M, Abdel-Gadir AF, Cheever AW, Bennett JL, Arbab BM, Ibrahium SZ et al.| title=Diagnosis of pathologically confirmed Symmers' periportal fibrosis by ultrasonography: a prospective blinded study. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 1988 | volume= 38 | issue= 1 | pages= 86-91 | pmid=3124648 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3124648  }}</ref><ref name="pmid10441577">{{cite journal| author=Dessein AJ, Hillaire D, Elwali NE, Marquet S, Mohamed-Ali Q, Mirghani A et al.| title=Severe hepatic fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni infection is controlled by a major locus that is closely linked to the interferon-gamma receptor gene. | journal=Am J Hum Genet | year= 1999 | volume= 65 | issue= 3 | pages= 709-21 | pmid=10441577 | doi=10.1086/302526 | pmc=1377977 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10441577  }}</ref>
+* Pulmonary schistosomiasis<ref name="pmid3722898">{{cite journal| author=Sarwat AK, Tag el Din MA, Bassiouni M, Ashmawi SS| title=Schistosomiasis of the lung. | journal=J Egypt Soc Parasitol | year= 1986 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 359-66 | pmid=3722898 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3722898  }}</ref>
+* Genitourinary schistosomiasis
+|
+* Stool microscopy<ref name="pmid7042854">{{cite journal| author=Mahmoud AA| title=The ecology of eosinophils in schistosomiasis. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 1982 | volume= 145 | issue= 5 | pages= 613-22 | pmid=7042854 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7042854  }}</ref>
+* Serologic tests include:
+**[[Hemagglutination|Indirect hemagglutination]]
+**[[Complement fixation]]
+**[[Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]]
+**[[PCR]]
+|
+* [[Praziquantel]]<ref name="pmid24955523">{{cite journal| author=Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Basso A, Guidi A| title=Schistosomiasis control: praziquantel forever? | journal=Mol Biochem Parasitol | year= 2014 | volume= 195 | issue= 1 | pages= 23-9 | pmid=24955523 | doi=10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.06.002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24955523  }}</ref>
+* [[Oxamniquine]]
+|-
+|Strongyloidiasis
+|[[Strongyloides|''Strongyloidis Stercoralis'']]
+|
+* Infection is contracted via direct contact with contaminated soil during agricultural, domestic, and recreational activities
+|
+* Approximately 30–100 million infected persons worldwide
+|
+* Tropical and subtropical regions
+|
+* Hyperinfection syndrome
+**[[Fever]]
+**[[Nausea and vomiting]]
+**[[Anorexia]]
+**[[Diarrhea]]
+**[[Abdominal pain]]
+**[[Dyspnea]]
+**[[Wheeze|Wheezing]]
+**[[Hemoptysis]]
+**[[Cough]]
+|
+* Aspiration of duodenojejunal fluid is sometimes used to detect<ref name="pmid7036430">{{cite journal| author=Carroll SM, Karthigasu KT, Grove DI| title=Serodiagnosis of human strongyloidiasis by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. | journal=Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg | year= 1981 | volume= 75 | issue= 5 | pages= 706-9 | pmid=7036430 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7036430  }}</ref>
+* Stool microscopy
+* PCR, ELISA
+|
+* [[Ivermectin]]<ref name="pmid11957127">{{cite journal| author=Zaha O, Hirata T, Kinjo F, Saito A, Fukuhara H| title=Efficacy of ivermectin for chronic strongyloidiasis: two single doses given 2 weeks apart. | journal=J Infect Chemother | year= 2002 | volume= 8 | issue= 1 | pages= 94-8 | pmid=11957127 | doi=10.1007/s101560200013 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11957127  }}</ref>
+* [[Albendazole]]<ref name="pmid8483992">{{cite journal| author=Archibald LK, Beeching NJ, Gill GV, Bailey JW, Bell DR| title=Albendazole is effective treatment for chronic strongyloidiasis. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1993 | volume= 86 | issue= 3 | pages= 191-5 | pmid=8483992 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8483992  }}</ref>
+|-
+|Amoebiais
+|''[[Entamoeba histolytica|E. Histolytica]]''
+|
+* Transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contaminated drinking water or food.
+* Direct contact with infected individuals.
+|
+* Annual incidence of amoebiasis is approximately 50 million cases.<ref name="pmid17716437">{{cite journal| author=Valenzuela O, Morán P, Gómez A, Cordova K, Corrales N, Cardoza J et al.| title=Epidemiology of amoebic liver abscess in Mexico: the case of Sonora. | journal=Ann Trop Med Parasitol | year= 2007 | volume= 101 | issue= 6 | pages= 533-8 | pmid=17716437 | doi=10.1179/136485907X193851 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17716437  }}</ref><ref name="pmid17437396">{{cite journal| author=van Hal SJ, Stark DJ, Fotedar R, Marriott D, Ellis JT, Harkness JL| title=Amoebiasis: current status in Australia. | journal=Med J Aust | year= 2007 | volume= 186 | issue= 8 | pages= 412-6 | pmid=17437396 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17437396  }}</ref><ref name="pmid19540361">{{cite journal| author=Ximénez C, Morán P, Rojas L, Valadez A, Gómez A| title=Reassessment of the epidemiology of amebiasis: state of the art. | journal=Infect Genet Evol | year= 2009 | volume= 9 | issue= 6 | pages= 1023-32 | pmid=19540361 | doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2009.06.008 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19540361  }}</ref>
+|
+* India
+* Africa
+* Mexico
+* Parts of Central and South America
+|
+* Asymptomatic
+* Mild [[diarrhea]] to severe [[dysentery]].
+* Fulminant amebic colitis.
+* [[Weight loss]]
+* [[Amebic dysentery]]
+|
+* Stool microscopy
+* Antigen testing
+* PCR
+|
+* [[Metronidazole]]
+* [[Tinidazole]]
+* [[Paromomycin]]
+* [[Diloxanide furoate]]
+* [[Iodoquinol]]
+|-
+|Taeniasis
+|
+* ''[[Taenia saginata]]''  (beef [[Tapeworms|tapeworm]])
+* ''[[Taenia solium]]'', ( pork tapeworm).<ref name="pmid9798586">{{cite journal| author=Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G| title=Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children. | journal=Lancet | year= 1998 | volume= 352 | issue= 9134 | pages= 1103-8 | pmid=9798586 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9798586  }}</ref>
+|
+* Consumption of undercooked beef
+|
+* Approximately 50 million human have cysticercosis.
+|
+* Europe
+* Parts of Asia.
+|
+*Most human carriers are asymptomatic.
+*Symptoms may include
+*[[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]]
+*[[Anorexia]]
+*[[Epigastric pain]]
+|
+* Stool microscopy
+* Peripheral [[eosinophilia]]
+* ELISA
+* PCR
+|
+* [[Albendazole]]
+|-
+|Trichuriasis
+|''Trichuris trichiura''
+|
+* Ingestion of [[Fertilised|embryonated]]<nowiki/>eggs from contaminated drinking water and food.
+|
+|
+* [[Endemic (epidemiology)|Endemic]] in [[Tropical disease|tropical]] and subtropical countries.
+*  Southern United States
+* Incidence and prevalence rates are highest in children living in
+** Sub-Saharan Africa
+** Asia
+** Latin America
+** Caribbean
+|
+* Asymptomatic<ref name="pmid97985862">{{cite journal| author=Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G| title=Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children. | journal=Lancet | year= 1998 | volume= 352 | issue= 9134 | pages= 1103-8 | pmid=9798586 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9798586  }}</ref>
+* Loose stool which may contain [[mucus]] and [[blood]]
+* Nocturnal stooling
+* [[Rectal prolapse]]
+|
+* Stool microscopy
+* [[Proctoscopy]]
+** Demonstrates adult worms protruding from the bowel [[Mucous membrane|mucosa]].
+* [[Eosinophilia]]
+* [[Polymerase chain reaction]]
+|
+* [[Mebendazole]]<ref name="pmid6378109">{{cite journal| author=Rossignol JF, Maisonneuve H| title=Benzimidazoles in the treatment of trichuriasis: a review. | journal=Ann Trop Med Parasitol | year= 1984 | volume= 78 | issue= 2 | pages= 135-44 | pmid=6378109 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6378109  }}</ref>
+** 500 mg PO q24h X 3 day '''(or)'''
+** 100 mg PO q12h x 2 days
+* [[Albendazole]]<ref name="pmid21980373">{{cite journal| author=Steinmann P, Utzinger J, Du ZW, Jiang JY, Chen JX, Hattendorf J et al.| title=Efficacy of single-dose and triple-dose albendazole and mebendazole against soil-transmitted helminths and Taenia spp.: a randomized controlled trial. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2011 | volume= 6 | issue= 9 | pages= e25003 | pmid=21980373 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025003 | pmc=3181256 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21980373  }}</ref>
+** 400 mg POq24h
+|-
+|Hymenolepiasis
+|''Hymenolepis nana''
+|
+* Ingestion of infected eggs
+|
+|Most common in temperate zones<ref name="pmid19456836">{{cite journal| author=Utzinger J, Botero-Kleiven S, Castelli F, Chiodini PL, Edwards H, Köhler N et al.| title=Microscopic diagnosis of sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin-fixed stool samples for helminths and intestinal protozoa: a comparison among European reference laboratories. | journal=Clin Microbiol Infect | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 3 | pages= 267-73 | pmid=19456836 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02782.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19456836  }}</ref>
+* South Europe
+* Russia
+* India
+* US
+* Latin America.
+|
+* Asymptomatic<ref name="pmid26535513">{{cite journal| author=Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo CA, Hidron A, Eberhard ML, Mathison BA et al.| title=Malignant Transformation of Hymenolepis nana in a Human Host. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2015 | volume= 373 | issue= 19 | pages= 1845-52 | pmid=26535513 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1505892 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26535513  }}</ref>
+* Heavy infections with >1000 worms can occur
+** Crampy [[abdominal pain]]
+** Diarrhea
+** Anorexia
+** Fatigue
+** Pruritus ani
+|
+* Stool microscopy
+** FLOTAC method<ref name="pmid22461006">{{cite journal| author=Steinmann P, Cringoli G, Bruschi F, Matthys B, Lohourignon LK, Castagna B et al.| title=FLOTAC for the diagnosis of Hymenolepis spp. infection: proof-of-concept and comparing diagnostic accuracy with other methods. | journal=Parasitol Res | year= 2012 | volume= 111 | issue= 2 | pages= 749-54 | pmid=22461006 | doi=10.1007/s00436-012-2895-9 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22461006  }}</ref>
+|
+* [[Praziquantel]]<ref name="pmid23618773">{{cite journal| author=Ohnishi K, Sakamoto N, Kobayashi K, Iwabuchi S, Nakamura-Uchiyama F| title=Therapeutic effect of praziquantel against Taeniasis asiatica. | journal=Int J Infect Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 17 | issue= 8 | pages= e656-7 | pmid=23618773 | doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2013.02.028 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23618773  }}</ref>
+* Prompt family screening or empiric treatment<ref name="pmid1980572">{{cite journal| author=Pawłowski ZS| title=Efficacy of low doses of praziquantel in taeniasis. | journal=Acta Trop | year= 1990 | volume= 48 | issue= 2 | pages= 83-8 | pmid=1980572 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1980572  }}</ref>
+|}
+<references />