Renal artery stenosis diagnostic criteria: Difference between revisions
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[[Reno aortic velocity]] ratio > 3.5 corresponds with 60% [[stenosis]]<ref name="pmid7741367">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olin JW, Piedmonte MR, Young JR, DeAnna S, Grubb M, Childs MB |title=The utility of duplex ultrasound scanning of the renal arteries for diagnosing significant renal artery stenosis |journal=Ann Intern Med |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=833–8 |date=June 1995 |pmid=7741367 |doi=10.7326/0003-4819-122-11-199506010-00004 |url=}}</ref> and RAPSV (Renal artery peak systolic velocity) greater than 150cm/s corresponds to 50% stenosis whereas velocity greater than 180cm/s corresponds to 60% stenosis<ref name="pmid7741367">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olin JW, Piedmonte MR, Young JR, DeAnna S, Grubb M, Childs MB |title=The utility of duplex ultrasound scanning of the renal arteries for diagnosing significant renal artery stenosis |journal=Ann Intern Med |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=833–8 |date=June 1995 |pmid=7741367 |doi=10.7326/0003-4819-122-11-199506010-00004 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7569132">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hélénon O, el Rody F, Correas JM, Melki P, Chauveau D, Chrétien Y, Moreau JF |title=Color Doppler US of renovascular disease in native kidneys |journal=Radiographics |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=833–54; discussion 854–65 |date=July 1995 |pmid=7569132 |doi=10.1148/radiographics.15.4.7569132 |url=}}</ref>. According to recent studies, the [[sensitivity]] and [[specificity]] of [[ultrasound-guided]] detection of [[renal artery stenosis]] are usually 85% and 92% respectively. Severe [[stenosis]] is diagnosed on [[USG]] with slowed [[systolic accelerations]] along with the decreased [[resistive index]]<ref name="pmid1620853">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stavros AT, Parker SH, Yakes WF, Chantelois AE, Burke BJ, Meyers PR, Schenck JJ |title=Segmental stenosis of the renal artery: pattern recognition of tardus and parvus abnormalities with duplex sonography |journal=Radiology |volume=184 |issue=2 |pages=487–92 |date=August 1992 |pmid=1620853 |doi=10.1148/radiology.184.2.1620853 |url=}}</ref>. | [[Reno aortic velocity]] ratio > 3.5 corresponds with 60% [[stenosis]]<ref name="pmid7741367">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olin JW, Piedmonte MR, Young JR, DeAnna S, Grubb M, Childs MB |title=The utility of duplex ultrasound scanning of the renal arteries for diagnosing significant renal artery stenosis |journal=Ann Intern Med |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=833–8 |date=June 1995 |pmid=7741367 |doi=10.7326/0003-4819-122-11-199506010-00004 |url=}}</ref> and RAPSV (Renal artery peak systolic velocity) greater than 150cm/s corresponds to 50% stenosis whereas velocity greater than 180cm/s corresponds to 60% stenosis<ref name="pmid7741367">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olin JW, Piedmonte MR, Young JR, DeAnna S, Grubb M, Childs MB |title=The utility of duplex ultrasound scanning of the renal arteries for diagnosing significant renal artery stenosis |journal=Ann Intern Med |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=833–8 |date=June 1995 |pmid=7741367 |doi=10.7326/0003-4819-122-11-199506010-00004 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7569132">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hélénon O, el Rody F, Correas JM, Melki P, Chauveau D, Chrétien Y, Moreau JF |title=Color Doppler US of renovascular disease in native kidneys |journal=Radiographics |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=833–54; discussion 854–65 |date=July 1995 |pmid=7569132 |doi=10.1148/radiographics.15.4.7569132 |url=}}</ref>. According to recent studies, the [[sensitivity]] and [[specificity]] of [[ultrasound-guided]] detection of [[renal artery stenosis]] are usually 85% and 92% respectively. Severe [[stenosis]] is diagnosed on [[USG]] with slowed [[systolic accelerations]] along with the decreased [[resistive index]]<ref name="pmid1620853">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stavros AT, Parker SH, Yakes WF, Chantelois AE, Burke BJ, Meyers PR, Schenck JJ |title=Segmental stenosis of the renal artery: pattern recognition of tardus and parvus abnormalities with duplex sonography |journal=Radiology |volume=184 |issue=2 |pages=487–92 |date=August 1992 |pmid=1620853 |doi=10.1148/radiology.184.2.1620853 |url=}}</ref>. | ||
Quantitative criteria for diagnosing distal stenosis includes early peak systolic acceleration <3m/s2, an acceleration index > 4m/s2, and or greater than 5% difference in RRI between both the kidneys. Because these waveforms are difficult to interpret these criteria are difficult to interpret<ref name="pmid12823921">{{cite journal |vauthors=Conkbayir I, Yücesoy C, Edgüer T, Yanik B, Yaşar Ayaz U, Hekimoğlu B |title=Doppler sonography in renal artery stenosis. An evaluation of intrarenal and extrarenal imaging parameters |journal=Clin Imaging |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=256–60 |date=2003 |pmid=12823921 |doi=10.1016/s0899-7071(02)00547-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8983584">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baxter GM, Aitchison F, Sheppard D, Moss JG, McLeod MJ, Harden PN, Love JG, Robertson M, Taylor G |title=Colour Doppler ultrasound in renal artery stenosis: intrarenal waveform analysis |journal=Br J Radiol |volume=69 |issue=825 |pages=810–5 |date=September 1996 |pmid=8983584 |doi=10.1259/0007-1285-69-825-810 |url=}}</ref>. | [[Quantitative]] criteria for diagnosing distal [[stenosis]] includes early peak [[systolic]] acceleration <3m/s2, an acceleration index > 4m/s2, and or greater than 5% difference in [[RRI]] between both the [[kidneys]]. Because these waveforms are difficult to interpret these criteria are difficult to interpret<ref name="pmid12823921">{{cite journal |vauthors=Conkbayir I, Yücesoy C, Edgüer T, Yanik B, Yaşar Ayaz U, Hekimoğlu B |title=Doppler sonography in renal artery stenosis. An evaluation of intrarenal and extrarenal imaging parameters |journal=Clin Imaging |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=256–60 |date=2003 |pmid=12823921 |doi=10.1016/s0899-7071(02)00547-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8983584">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baxter GM, Aitchison F, Sheppard D, Moss JG, McLeod MJ, Harden PN, Love JG, Robertson M, Taylor G |title=Colour Doppler ultrasound in renal artery stenosis: intrarenal waveform analysis |journal=Br J Radiol |volume=69 |issue=825 |pages=810–5 |date=September 1996 |pmid=8983584 |doi=10.1259/0007-1285-69-825-810 |url=}}</ref>. | ||
===<u>Computed Tomographic Angiography.</u>=== | ===<u>Computed Tomographic Angiography.</u>=== | ||
CT angiography provides a three-dimensional assessment of the tissue as one of the important tools in the diagnosis of Renal artery stenosis. | [[CT angiography]] provides a three-dimensional assessment of the tissue as one of the important tools in the diagnosis of [[Renal artery stenosis]]. | ||
*Contraindicated in patients with contrast allergy as this procedure modality involves the ionizing radiations and iodinated contrast medium. | *Contraindicated in patients with [[contrast allergy]] as this procedure modality involves the [[ionizing radiations]] and [[iodinated]] [[contrast]] medium. | ||
*In patients having underlying renal impairment the use of iodinated contrast can lead to the development of contrast-induced nephropathy, but it can be prevented with the use of hydration before doing the procedure. | *In [[patients]] having underlying [[renal impairment]] the use of [[iodinated contrast]] can lead to the development of [[contrast-induced nephropathy]], but it can be prevented with the use of [[hydration]] before doing the procedure. | ||
*The sensitivity of this procedure is extremely high with 94% and specificity varies between 60% to 90 %<ref name="pmid17050355">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eklöf H, Ahlström H, Magnusson A, Andersson LG, Andrén B, Hägg A, Bergqvist D, Nyman R |title=A prospective comparison of duplex ultrasonography, captopril renography, MRA, and CTA in assessing renal artery stenosis |journal=Acta Radiol |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=764–74 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17050355 |doi=10.1080/02841850600849092 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17497443">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rountas C, Vlychou M, Vassiou K, Liakopoulos V, Kapsalaki E, Koukoulis G, Fezoulidis IV, Stefanidis I |title=Imaging modalities for renal artery stenosis in suspected renovascular hypertension: prospective intraindividual comparison of color Doppler US, CT angiography, GD-enhanced MR angiography, and digital substraction angiography |journal=Ren Fail |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=295–302 |date=2007 |pmid=17497443 |doi=10.1080/08860220601166305 |url=}}</ref>. | *The [[sensitivity]] of this procedure is extremely high with 94% and [[specificity]] varies between 60% to 90 %<ref name="pmid17050355">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eklöf H, Ahlström H, Magnusson A, Andersson LG, Andrén B, Hägg A, Bergqvist D, Nyman R |title=A prospective comparison of duplex ultrasonography, captopril renography, MRA, and CTA in assessing renal artery stenosis |journal=Acta Radiol |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=764–74 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17050355 |doi=10.1080/02841850600849092 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17497443">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rountas C, Vlychou M, Vassiou K, Liakopoulos V, Kapsalaki E, Koukoulis G, Fezoulidis IV, Stefanidis I |title=Imaging modalities for renal artery stenosis in suspected renovascular hypertension: prospective intraindividual comparison of color Doppler US, CT angiography, GD-enhanced MR angiography, and digital substraction angiography |journal=Ren Fail |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=295–302 |date=2007 |pmid=17497443 |doi=10.1080/08860220601166305 |url=}}</ref>. | ||
*CTA can give the detailed resolution of even small accessory renal arteries. | *[[CTA]] can give the detailed resolution of even small [[accessory renal arteries]]. | ||
*It is also the diagnostic modality of choice in patients having limited capacity to hold breath and also in patients having claustrophobia. | *It is also the diagnostic modality of choice in patients having limited capacity to hold breath and also in patients having [[claustrophobia]]. | ||
*At the same time, CTA is having limited diagnostic modality as compared to MRA in detecting clinically significant Renal artery stenosis and also in patients having renal dysfunction<br /> | *At the same time, [[CTA]] is having limited diagnostic modality as compared to [[MRA]] in detecting clinically significant [[Renal artery stenosis]] and also in patients having [[renal]] dysfunction<br /> | ||
===<u>Magnetic Resonance Angiography</u>=== | ===<u>Magnetic Resonance Angiography</u>=== | ||
MRA is having sensitivity and specificity of 90-100%<ref name="pmid17050355">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eklöf H, Ahlström H, Magnusson A, Andersson LG, Andrén B, Hägg A, Bergqvist D, Nyman R |title=A prospective comparison of duplex ultrasonography, captopril renography, MRA, and CTA in assessing renal artery stenosis |journal=Acta Radiol |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=764–74 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17050355 |doi=10.1080/02841850600849092 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17497443">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rountas C, Vlychou M, Vassiou K, Liakopoulos V, Kapsalaki E, Koukoulis G, Fezoulidis IV, Stefanidis I |title=Imaging modalities for renal artery stenosis in suspected renovascular hypertension: prospective intraindividual comparison of color Doppler US, CT angiography, GD-enhanced MR angiography, and digital substraction angiography |journal=Ren Fail |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=295–302 |date=2007 |pmid=17497443 |doi=10.1080/08860220601166305 |url=}}</ref> | [[MRA]] is having [[sensitivity]] and [[specificity]] of 90-100%<ref name="pmid17050355">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eklöf H, Ahlström H, Magnusson A, Andersson LG, Andrén B, Hägg A, Bergqvist D, Nyman R |title=A prospective comparison of duplex ultrasonography, captopril renography, MRA, and CTA in assessing renal artery stenosis |journal=Acta Radiol |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=764–74 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17050355 |doi=10.1080/02841850600849092 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17497443">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rountas C, Vlychou M, Vassiou K, Liakopoulos V, Kapsalaki E, Koukoulis G, Fezoulidis IV, Stefanidis I |title=Imaging modalities for renal artery stenosis in suspected renovascular hypertension: prospective intraindividual comparison of color Doppler US, CT angiography, GD-enhanced MR angiography, and digital substraction angiography |journal=Ren Fail |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=295–302 |date=2007 |pmid=17497443 |doi=10.1080/08860220601166305 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*This procedure does not involve the use of iodinated contrast or radiations, unlike CTA. | *This procedure does not involve the use of [[iodinated contrast]] or [[radiations]], unlike [[CTA]]. | ||
*In patients with intermediate to end-stage renal failure due to the risk of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, gadolinium-based contrast media should be avoided. | *In patients with intermediate to [[end-stage renal failure]] due to the risk of [[nephrogenic]] systemic [[fibrosis]], [[gadolinium-based contrast media]] should be avoided. | ||
*Additionally, In patients with the kind of implanted devices (i.e., pacemakers, defibrillators, cochlear implants, and spinal cord stimulators), or in claustrophobic patients, MRA should not be used. | *Additionally, In patients with the kind of implanted devices (i.e., [[pacemakers]], [[defibrillators]], [[cochlear implants]], and [[spinal cord stimulators]]), or in [[claustrophobic]] patients, [[MRA]] should not be used. | ||
*Contrast reaction associated with MRA is lower as compared to CTA | *[[Contrast]] reaction associated with [[MRA]] is lower as compared to [[CTA]] | ||
===<u>Angiography</u>=== | ===<u>Angiography</u>=== | ||
Invasive renal arteriography is an important helpful modality used these days in evaluating Renal artery stenosis. | Invasive [[renal arteriography]] is an important helpful modality used these days in evaluating [[Renal artery stenosis]]. | ||
*Angiography can detect intrarenal vascular abnormalities and anatomical abnormalities of the kidneys, renal arteries, and aorta, in addition to evaluating the severity of RAS. | *[[Angiography]] can detect intrarenal [[vascular]] abnormalities and [[anatomical]] abnormalities of the [[kidneys]], [[renal arteries]], and [[aorta]], in addition to evaluating the severity of [[RAS]]. | ||
*Digital angiography by subtraction increases contrast resolution and can minimize the amount of contrast required to as little as 15mL. | *[[Digital angiography]] by subtraction increases contrast resolution and can minimize the amount of [[contrast]] required to as little as 15mL. | ||
*There are risks involved with arterial puncture and catheter/wire stimulation because renal angiography is invasive, which may lead to arterial damage, spasm, or thromboembolic phenomena<ref name="pmid7500898">{{cite journal |vauthors=Thadhani RI, Camargo CA, Xavier RJ, Fang LS, Bazari H |title=Atheroembolic renal failure after invasive procedures. Natural history based on 52 histologically proven cases |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=350–8 |date=November 1995 |pmid=7500898 |doi=10.1097/00005792-199511000-00005 |url=}}</ref>. | *There are risks involved with [[arterial puncture]] and catheter/wire stimulation because [[renal angiography]] is invasive, which may lead to [[arterial damage]], [[spasm]], or [[thromboembolic phenomena]]<ref name="pmid7500898">{{cite journal |vauthors=Thadhani RI, Camargo CA, Xavier RJ, Fang LS, Bazari H |title=Atheroembolic renal failure after invasive procedures. Natural history based on 52 histologically proven cases |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=350–8 |date=November 1995 |pmid=7500898 |doi=10.1097/00005792-199511000-00005 |url=}}</ref>. | ||
*Carbon dioxide should be used as a non-nephrotoxic contrast agent in patients with renal failure or contrast allergy. | *[[Carbon dioxide]] should be used as a [[non-nephrotoxic]] [[contrast]] agent in patients with [[renal failure]] or [[contrast allergy]]. | ||
*To assess hemodynamic importance before conducting therapeutic procedures such as percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) or stenting, translesional pressure gradients may be measured across regions of stenosis. | *To assess hemodynamic importance before conducting therapeutic procedures such as [[percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty]] (PTRA) or stenting, translesional pressure gradients may be measured across regions of [[stenosis]]. | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
<references /> | <references /> | ||
Latest revision as of 23:04, 13 December 2020
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor-In-Chief: Shivam Singla, M.D.[2]
Overview
There are numerous tests and procedures involved in the detection of renal artery stenosis. Renal artery stenosis is best diagnosed with MRA(Magnetic resonance Imaging), Doppler ultrasound, Computed tomography, renal scintigraphy, peripheral renin levels, and renal vein sampling. Though these all modalities are used for making the diagnosis but still renal vein sampling, renal scintigraphy is not the first choice for making the diagnosis of renal artery stenosis because of their low sensitivity and specificity which is around 38-40.
Diagnosis
There are numerous tests and procedures involved in the detection of renal artery stenosis. Renal artery stenosis is best diagnosed with MRA(Magnetic resonance Imaging), Doppler ultrasound, Computed tomography, renal scintigraphy, peripheral renin levels, and renal vein sampling. Though these all modalities are used for making the diagnosis but still renal vein sampling, renal scintigraphy are not the first choice for making the diagnosis of renal artery stenosis because of their low sensitivity and specificity[1][2] which is around 38-40.
The imaging modalities may be considered diagnostic if the following objectives are met:
(1) Anatomic and or Hemodynamic abnormality
(2) Anatomic consequences and complications associated with renal artery stenosis (Post stenotic dilatation of renal artery can be seen with the use of CTA and MRA, shrinkage of renal parenchyma, with kidneys being < 8 cm.
(3) Functional and cellular consequences of renal artery stenosis
(4) Renal impairment criteria related to renovascular disease should be me[3].
Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is readily available, secure, and inexpensive, and consequently is usually the first imaging study used to detect Renal artery stenosis. Usually, the results and accuracy are operator dependent and range in between 60-90%[4]. This modality helps in the assessment of
A renal artery EDV >90cm/s[5] and RRI< 75-80[6] represents no microvascular disease. The hemodynamic significant abnormality is concluded with the presence of spectral broadening and increased velocity on USG.
Reno aortic velocity ratio > 3.5 corresponds with 60% stenosis[7] and RAPSV (Renal artery peak systolic velocity) greater than 150cm/s corresponds to 50% stenosis whereas velocity greater than 180cm/s corresponds to 60% stenosis[7][8]. According to recent studies, the sensitivity and specificity of ultrasound-guided detection of renal artery stenosis are usually 85% and 92% respectively. Severe stenosis is diagnosed on USG with slowed systolic accelerations along with the decreased resistive index[9].
Quantitative criteria for diagnosing distal stenosis includes early peak systolic acceleration <3m/s2, an acceleration index > 4m/s2, and or greater than 5% difference in RRI between both the kidneys. Because these waveforms are difficult to interpret these criteria are difficult to interpret[10][11].
Computed Tomographic Angiography.
CT angiography provides a three-dimensional assessment of the tissue as one of the important tools in the diagnosis of Renal artery stenosis.
- Contraindicated in patients with contrast allergy as this procedure modality involves the ionizing radiations and iodinated contrast medium.
- In patients having underlying renal impairment the use of iodinated contrast can lead to the development of contrast-induced nephropathy, but it can be prevented with the use of hydration before doing the procedure.
- The sensitivity of this procedure is extremely high with 94% and specificity varies between 60% to 90 %[12][13].
- CTA can give the detailed resolution of even small accessory renal arteries.
- It is also the diagnostic modality of choice in patients having limited capacity to hold breath and also in patients having claustrophobia.
- At the same time, CTA is having limited diagnostic modality as compared to MRA in detecting clinically significant Renal artery stenosis and also in patients having renal dysfunction
Magnetic Resonance Angiography
MRA is having sensitivity and specificity of 90-100%[12][13]
- This procedure does not involve the use of iodinated contrast or radiations, unlike CTA.
- In patients with intermediate to end-stage renal failure due to the risk of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, gadolinium-based contrast media should be avoided.
- Additionally, In patients with the kind of implanted devices (i.e., pacemakers, defibrillators, cochlear implants, and spinal cord stimulators), or in claustrophobic patients, MRA should not be used.
- Contrast reaction associated with MRA is lower as compared to CTA
Angiography
Invasive renal arteriography is an important helpful modality used these days in evaluating Renal artery stenosis.
- Angiography can detect intrarenal vascular abnormalities and anatomical abnormalities of the kidneys, renal arteries, and aorta, in addition to evaluating the severity of RAS.
- Digital angiography by subtraction increases contrast resolution and can minimize the amount of contrast required to as little as 15mL.
- There are risks involved with arterial puncture and catheter/wire stimulation because renal angiography is invasive, which may lead to arterial damage, spasm, or thromboembolic phenomena[14].
- Carbon dioxide should be used as a non-nephrotoxic contrast agent in patients with renal failure or contrast allergy.
- To assess hemodynamic importance before conducting therapeutic procedures such as percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) or stenting, translesional pressure gradients may be measured across regions of stenosis.
References
- ↑ Napoli V, Pinto S, Bargellini I, Vignali C, Cioni R, Petruzzi P, Salvetti A, Bartolozzi C (April 2002). "Duplex ultrasonographic study of the renal arteries before and after renal artery stenting". Eur Radiol. 12 (4): 796–803. doi:10.1007/s003300101121. PMID 11960229.
- ↑ Grenier N, Trillaud H, Combe C, Degrèze P, Jeandot R, Gosse P, Douws C, Palussière J (April 1996). "Diagnosis of renovascular hypertension: feasibility of captopril-sensitized dynamic MR imaging and comparison with captopril scintigraphy". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 166 (4): 835–43. doi:10.2214/ajr.166.4.8610560. PMID 8610560.
- ↑ Grenier N, Hauger O, Cimpean A, Pérot V (January 2006). "Update of renal imaging". Semin Nucl Med. 36 (1): 3–15. doi:10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2005.08.001. PMID 16356793.
- ↑ Zhang HL, Sos TA, Winchester PA, Gao J, Prince MR (2009). "Renal artery stenosis: imaging options, pitfalls, and concerns". Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 52 (3): 209–19. doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2009.10.003. PMID 19917332.
- ↑ Radermacher J, Chavan A, Bleck J, Vitzthum A, Stoess B, Gebel MJ, Galanski M, Koch KM, Haller H (February 2001). "Use of Doppler ultrasonography to predict the outcome of therapy for renal-artery stenosis". N Engl J Med. 344 (6): 410–7. doi:10.1056/NEJM200102083440603. PMID 11172177.
- ↑ Mukherjee D, Bhatt DL, Robbins M, Roffi M, Cho L, Reginelli J, Bajzer C, Navarro F, Yadav JS (November 2001). "Renal artery end-diastolic velocity and renal artery resistance index as predictors of outcome after renal stenting". Am J Cardiol. 88 (9): 1064–6. doi:10.1016/s0002-9149(01)01996-8. PMID 11704015.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Olin JW, Piedmonte MR, Young JR, DeAnna S, Grubb M, Childs MB (June 1995). "The utility of duplex ultrasound scanning of the renal arteries for diagnosing significant renal artery stenosis". Ann Intern Med. 122 (11): 833–8. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-122-11-199506010-00004. PMID 7741367.
- ↑ Hélénon O, el Rody F, Correas JM, Melki P, Chauveau D, Chrétien Y, Moreau JF (July 1995). "Color Doppler US of renovascular disease in native kidneys". Radiographics. 15 (4): 833–54, discussion 854–65. doi:10.1148/radiographics.15.4.7569132. PMID 7569132.
- ↑ Stavros AT, Parker SH, Yakes WF, Chantelois AE, Burke BJ, Meyers PR, Schenck JJ (August 1992). "Segmental stenosis of the renal artery: pattern recognition of tardus and parvus abnormalities with duplex sonography". Radiology. 184 (2): 487–92. doi:10.1148/radiology.184.2.1620853. PMID 1620853.
- ↑ Conkbayir I, Yücesoy C, Edgüer T, Yanik B, Yaşar Ayaz U, Hekimoğlu B (2003). "Doppler sonography in renal artery stenosis. An evaluation of intrarenal and extrarenal imaging parameters". Clin Imaging. 27 (4): 256–60. doi:10.1016/s0899-7071(02)00547-8. PMID 12823921.
- ↑ Baxter GM, Aitchison F, Sheppard D, Moss JG, McLeod MJ, Harden PN, Love JG, Robertson M, Taylor G (September 1996). "Colour Doppler ultrasound in renal artery stenosis: intrarenal waveform analysis". Br J Radiol. 69 (825): 810–5. doi:10.1259/0007-1285-69-825-810. PMID 8983584.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Eklöf H, Ahlström H, Magnusson A, Andersson LG, Andrén B, Hägg A, Bergqvist D, Nyman R (October 2006). "A prospective comparison of duplex ultrasonography, captopril renography, MRA, and CTA in assessing renal artery stenosis". Acta Radiol. 47 (8): 764–74. doi:10.1080/02841850600849092. PMID 17050355.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Rountas C, Vlychou M, Vassiou K, Liakopoulos V, Kapsalaki E, Koukoulis G, Fezoulidis IV, Stefanidis I (2007). "Imaging modalities for renal artery stenosis in suspected renovascular hypertension: prospective intraindividual comparison of color Doppler US, CT angiography, GD-enhanced MR angiography, and digital substraction angiography". Ren Fail. 29 (3): 295–302. doi:10.1080/08860220601166305. PMID 17497443.
- ↑ Thadhani RI, Camargo CA, Xavier RJ, Fang LS, Bazari H (November 1995). "Atheroembolic renal failure after invasive procedures. Natural history based on 52 histologically proven cases". Medicine (Baltimore). 74 (6): 350–8. doi:10.1097/00005792-199511000-00005. PMID 7500898.