Intracerebral metastases overview: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | |||
Intracerebral metastases are cancers that have metastasized to the brain from another location in the body.<ref name=wiki1>Introduction to brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 17, 2015</ref> Intracerebral metastases are different from the cancer that starts in the brain (called primary brain cancer). Primary brain tumors occur much less often than intracerebral metastases. It is estimated that 20–40% of intracerebral tumors are metastatic.<ref name=intro>Introduction to brain metastases. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/?region=on. Accessed on November 13, 2015</ref> Cancers that start in the brain usually remain in one place (solitary mass). If there is more than one tumor in the brain, they are most probably intracerebral metastases. The ability of cancer cells to sever their link to the primary tumor site and commence the metastatic process, once specific functions have been acquired by an appropriate subset of cancer cells. The multistep cascade can be grouped into two stages: ''migration'' (intravasation, dissemination, and extravasation) and ''colonization''.<ref name="RahmathullaToms2012">{{cite journal|last1=Rahmathulla|first1=Gazanfar|last2=Toms|first2=Steven A.|last3=Weil|first3=Robert J.|title=The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis|journal=Journal of Oncology|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=1687-8450|doi=10.1155/2012/723541}}</ref> Genes involved in the pathogenesis of intracerebral metastases include ''RHoC'', ''[[Lysyl oxidase|LOX]]'', ''[[VEGF]]'', and ''[[Macrophage colony-stimulating factor|CSF1]]''.<ref name="RahmathullaToms2012">{{cite journal|last1=Rahmathulla|first1=Gazanfar|last2=Toms|first2=Steven A.|last3=Weil|first3=Robert J.|title=The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis|journal=Journal of Oncology|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=1687-8450|doi=10.1155/2012/723541}}</ref> On gross pathology, intracerebral metastases are characterized by single-to-multiple masses typically found in the watershed areas of the brain, that are sharply demarcated from the surrounding parenchyma and usually have a zone of peritumoral [[edema]] that is out of proportion with the tumor size.<ref name=pathologyofbrainmets1>Gross appearance pathology of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 16, 2015</ref><ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref> On microscopic histopathological analysis, intracerebral metastases are characterized by tubule formation, well-circumscribed and sharply demarcated from surrounding tissues, with [[mitoses]] and [[atypia|nuclear atypia]]. Intracerebral metastases are demonstrated by positivity to tumor markers such as pankeratin, [[TTF1 (gene)|TTF-1]], [[Type II keratin|CK7]], and [[Type I keratin|CK20]].<ref name=IHCprofileofbrainmets1>IHC features of brain metastasis. Libre pathology 2015. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015</ref> Common causes of intracerebral metastases include [[lung cancer]], [[breast cancer]], [[melanoma]], and [[colorectal cancer]].<ref name=causesofintracerebralmetastasis>Causes of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=causesofintracerebralmetastasis2>Epidemiology of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name="RahmathullaToms2012">{{cite journal|last1=Rahmathulla|first1=Gazanfar|last2=Toms|first2=Steven A.|last3=Weil|first3=Robert J.|title=The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis|journal=Journal of Oncology|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=1687-8450|doi=10.1155/2012/723541}}</ref> Occasionally, cancer spreads to the brain but the original location of the cancer in the body (primary site) is not known. This is called ''cancer of unknown primary'' (CUP).<ref name=Cancersthatspreadtothebrain>Cancers that spread to the brain. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/?region=on. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name="FabiFelici2011">{{cite journal|last1=Fabi|first1=Alessandra|last2=Felici|first2=Alessandra|last3=Metro|first3=Giulio|last4=Mirri|first4=Alessandra|last5=Bria|first5=Emilio|last6=Telera|first6=Stefano|last7=Moscetti|first7=Luca|last8=Russillo|first8=Michelangelo|last9=Lanzetta|first9=Gaetano|last10=Mansueto|first10=Giovanni|last11=Pace|first11=Andrea|last12=Maschio|first12=Marta|last13=Vidiri|first13=Antonello|last14=Sperduti|first14=Isabella|last15=Cognetti|first15=Francesco|last16=Carapella|first16=Carmine M|title=Brain metastases from solid tumors: disease outcome according to type of treatment and therapeutic resources of the treating center|journal=Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research|volume=30|issue=1|year=2011|pages=10|issn=1756-9966|doi=10.1186/1756-9966-30-10}}</ref> Intracranial metastases must be differentiated from [[glioblastoma multiforme]], [[meningioma]], [[primary CNS lymphoma]], [[stroke]], and [[epilepsy]].<ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal | |||
| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref><ref name=ddxofintracerebralmetastases1>Differential diagnosis of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref> Intracerebral metastases are the most common intracranial tumors in adults, occurring in up to 30% of adult cancer patients.<ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref> They are estimated to account for approximately 25-50% of intracranial tumors in hospitalised patients.<ref name=introbrainmets1>Introduction to brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 16, 2015</ref> The incidence of intracerebral metastases is estimated to be 200,000 cases annually in the United States.<ref name=incidenceofrainmetastases1>Epidemiology of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref> The incidence of intracerebral metastases increases with age. The peak incidence occurs in patients over 65 years of age.<ref name=incidenceofmetastaticbraintumor1>Incidence of metastatic brain tumors. American Brain Tumor Association 2015. http://www.abta.org/secure/metastatic-brain-tumor.pdf. Accessed on November 16, 2015</ref> Intracerebral metastases affect men and women equally.<ref name=incidenceofmetastaticbraintumor1>Incidence of metastatic brain tumors. American Brain Tumor Association 2015. http://www.abta.org/secure/metastatic-brain-tumor.pdf. Accessed on November 16, 2015</ref> If left untreated, patients with intracerebral metastases may progress to develop [[seizures]], altered mental status, [[hemiplegia]], focal neurological deficits, [[hemorrhage]], [[brain herniation]], [[coma]], and death.<ref name=symptomsofbrainmetastasis1>Clinical presentation of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal | |||
| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref> Common complications of intracerebral metastases include [[brain herniation]], [[hemorrhage]], [[coma]], and [[stroke]]. Depending on the type of the [[Primary tumor|primary cancer]], the age of the patient, absence or presence of extracranial metastases, and the number of metastatic sites in the brain at the time of diagnosis, the prognosis may vary. However, the prognosis is generally regarded as poor. The median survival time of all patients with intracerebral metastases is 2.3 months.<ref name=prognosisofintracerebralmetastasis1>Prognosis of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref> Symptoms of intracerebral metastases include [[headache]], [[seizures]], [[visual loss|visual disturbances]], [[cognition|cognitive dysfunction]], [[paresthesia]], and [[muscle weakness]]. Common physical examination findings of intracerebral metastases include [[bradycardia]], [[systolic blood pressure|high systolic blood pressure]] with [[widened pulse pressure]], [[papilledema]], [[altered mental status]], [[ataxia]], and focal neurological deficits.<ref name=symptomsofbrainmetastases2>Symptoms of brain metastases. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal | |||
| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref> Head CT scan and brain MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases. On CT scan, intracerebral metastases are characterized by iso- to hypodense mass with zero to marked peritumoral [[edema]]. On contrast administration, variable enhancement (intense, punctuate, nodular, or ring-enhanced) may be present.<ref name=ctfindingsbrainmets1>Radiographic CT features of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. accessed on November 13, 2015</ref> On MRI, intracerebral metastases are characterized by iso- to hypointensity on T1-weighted imaging and hyperintense portion on T2-weighted imaging. On contrast administration, intense enhancement is observed (uniform, punctate, or ring-enhancing). Peritumoral [[edema]] which is out of proportion with tumor size is observed on diffusion weighted imaging.<ref name=mriofbrainmets1>Radiographic MRI features of brain metastasis. Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases</ref> Other imaging tests for intracerebral metastases include [[Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy|MR spectroscopy]] (intratumoural [[choline]] and [[lipid]] peak with depleted [[N-Acetylaspartate|N-acetylaspartate]]), [[Perfusion weighted imaging|MR perfusion]] (reduced cerebral blood volume and cerebral blood flow in the region of [[metastasis]]), and [[PET|positron emission tomography]] (hypermetabolic, hypometabolic, or variable metabolism depending on the primary).<ref name=mriofbrainmets1>Radiographic MRI features of brain metastasis. Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases</ref><ref name=nuclear1>Nuclear medicine for brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 13, 2015</ref> [[Brain biopsy]] is done to confirm the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases, if the type of primary tumor is unknown or the etiology of the brain abnormality is unknown.<ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref> Histopathological findings on biopsy of intracerebral metastases can be found [[Intracerebral metastases pathophysiology|'''here''']].<ref name=microscopicpathologyofintracerebralmetastasis1>Microscopic features of brain metastasis. Libre pathology 2015. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015</ref><ref name=micro2>Microscopic appearance of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 10, 2015</ref> The optimal therapy for intracerebral metastases depends on the number, size, and location of the metastatic lesions. The various treatment options for intracerebral metastases include symptomatic treatment ([[corticosteroids]] and [[anticonvulsants]]), [[radiotherapy|whole brain radiotherapy]], [[chemotherapy]], [[stereotactic radiosurgery]], and [[surgery]].<ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref><ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref><ref name=symptomaticrxofbrainmets2>Symptomatic treatment of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015</ref><ref name=radiationforbrainmets1>Radiation therapy for intracerebral metastases. Canadian cancer institute 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/treatment/?region=on. Accessed on November 13, 2015</ref><ref name=symptomaticrxofbrainmetastasis1>Symptomatic treatment of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref> | |||
==Historical Perspective== | |||
Intracerebral metastases was first described by Posner and Chernik, following the largest and most comprehensive autopsy series at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center from 1970 to 1976.<ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal | |||
| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref> | |||
==Classification== | |||
There is no classification system established for intracerebral metastases. | |||
==Pathophysiology== | |||
Intracerebral metastases are different from the cancer that starts in the brain (called primary brain cancer). Primary brain tumors occur much less often than intracerebral metastases. It is estimated that 20–40% of intracerebral tumors are metastatic.<ref name=intro>Introduction to brain metastases. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/?region=on. Accessed on November 13, 2015</ref> Cancers that start in the brain usually remain in one place (solitary mass). If there is more than one tumor in the brain, they are most probably intracerebral metastases. The ability of cancer cells to sever their link to the primary tumor site and commence the metastatic process, once specific functions have been acquired by an appropriate subset of cancer cells. The multistep cascade can be grouped into two stages: ''migration'' (intravasation, dissemination, and extravasation) and ''colonization''.<ref name="RahmathullaToms2012">{{cite journal|last1=Rahmathulla|first1=Gazanfar|last2=Toms|first2=Steven A.|last3=Weil|first3=Robert J.|title=The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis|journal=Journal of Oncology|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=1687-8450|doi=10.1155/2012/723541}}</ref> Genes involved in the pathogenesis of intracerebral metastases include ''RHoC'', ''[[Lysyl oxidase|LOX]]'', ''[[VEGF]]'', and ''[[Macrophage colony-stimulating factor|CSF1]]''.<ref name="RahmathullaToms2012">{{cite journal|last1=Rahmathulla|first1=Gazanfar|last2=Toms|first2=Steven A.|last3=Weil|first3=Robert J.|title=The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis|journal=Journal of Oncology|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=1687-8450|doi=10.1155/2012/723541}}</ref> On gross pathology, intracerebral metastases are characterized by single-to-multiple masses typically found in the watershed areas of the brain, that are sharply demarcated from the surrounding parenchyma and usually have a zone of peritumoral [[edema]] that is out of proportion with the tumor size.<ref name=pathologyofbrainmets1>Gross appearance pathology of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 16, 2015</ref><ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref> On microscopic histopathological analysis, intracerebral metastases are characterized by tubule formation, well-circumscribed and sharply demarcated from surrounding tissues, with [[mitoses]] and [[atypia|nuclear atypia]]. Intracerebral metastases are demonstrated by positivity to tumor markers such as pankeratin, [[TTF1 (gene)|TTF-1]], [[Type II keratin|CK7]], and [[Type I keratin|CK20]].<ref name=IHCprofileofbrainmets1>IHC features of brain metastasis. Libre pathology 2015. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015</ref> | |||
==Causes== | |||
Common causes of intracerebral metastases include [[lung cancer]], [[breast cancer]], [[melanoma]], and [[colorectal cancer]].<ref name=causesofintracerebralmetastasis>Causes of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=causesofintracerebralmetastasis2>Epidemiology of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name="RahmathullaToms2012">{{cite journal|last1=Rahmathulla|first1=Gazanfar|last2=Toms|first2=Steven A.|last3=Weil|first3=Robert J.|title=The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis|journal=Journal of Oncology|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=1687-8450|doi=10.1155/2012/723541}}</ref> Occasionally, cancer spreads to the brain but the original location of the cancer in the body (primary site) is not known. This is called ''cancer of unknown primary'' (CUP).<ref name=Cancersthatspreadtothebrain>Cancers that spread to the brain. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/?region=on. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name="FabiFelici2011">{{cite journal|last1=Fabi|first1=Alessandra|last2=Felici|first2=Alessandra|last3=Metro|first3=Giulio|last4=Mirri|first4=Alessandra|last5=Bria|first5=Emilio|last6=Telera|first6=Stefano|last7=Moscetti|first7=Luca|last8=Russillo|first8=Michelangelo|last9=Lanzetta|first9=Gaetano|last10=Mansueto|first10=Giovanni|last11=Pace|first11=Andrea|last12=Maschio|first12=Marta|last13=Vidiri|first13=Antonello|last14=Sperduti|first14=Isabella|last15=Cognetti|first15=Francesco|last16=Carapella|first16=Carmine M|title=Brain metastases from solid tumors: disease outcome according to type of treatment and therapeutic resources of the treating center|journal=Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research|volume=30|issue=1|year=2011|pages=10|issn=1756-9966|doi=10.1186/1756-9966-30-10}}</ref> | |||
==Differentiating Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytoma from other Diseases== | |||
Intracranial metastases must be differentiated from [[glioblastoma multiforme]], [[meningioma]], [[primary CNS lymphoma]], [[stroke]], and [[epilepsy]].<ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal | |||
| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref><ref name=ddxofintracerebralmetastases1>Differential diagnosis of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref> | |||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | |||
Intracerebral metastases are the most common intracranial tumors in adults, occurring in up to 30% of adult cancer patients.<ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref> They are estimated to account for approximately 25-50% of intracranial tumors in hospitalised patients.<ref name=introbrainmets1>Introduction to brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 16, 2015</ref> The incidence of intracerebral metastases is estimated to be 200,000 cases annually in the United States.<ref name=incidenceofrainmetastases1>Epidemiology of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref> The incidence of intracerebral metastases increases with age. The peak incidence occurs in patients over 65 years of age.<ref name=incidenceofmetastaticbraintumor1>Incidence of metastatic brain tumors. American Brain Tumor Association 2015. http://www.abta.org/secure/metastatic-brain-tumor.pdf. Accessed on November 16, 2015</ref> Intracerebral metastases affect men and women equally.<ref name=incidenceofmetastaticbraintumor1>Incidence of metastatic brain tumors. American Brain Tumor Association 2015. http://www.abta.org/secure/metastatic-brain-tumor.pdf. Accessed on November 16, 2015</ref> | |||
==Risk factors== | |||
The risk of developing intracerebral metastases depends on the type and location of the primary tumor. Primary tumors that are commonly associated with the development of brain metastasis include [[lung cancer]], [[breast cancer]], [[melanoma]], and [[colorectal carcinoma]].<ref name=causesofintracerebralmetastasis>Causes of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=causesofintracerebralmetastasis2>Epidemiology of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name="RahmathullaToms2012">{{cite journal|last1=Rahmathulla|first1=Gazanfar|last2=Toms|first2=Steven A.|last3=Weil|first3=Robert J.|title=The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis|journal=Journal of Oncology|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=1687-8450|doi=10.1155/2012/723541}}</ref> | |||
==Screening== | |||
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for intracerebral metastases. | |||
==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | |||
If left untreated, patients with intracerebral metastases may progress to develop [[seizures]], altered mental status, [[hemiplegia]], focal neurological deficits, [[hemorrhage]], [[brain herniation]], [[coma]], and death.<ref name=symptomsofbrainmetastasis1>Clinical presentation of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal | |||
| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref> Common complications of intracerebral metastases include [[brain herniation]], [[hemorrhage]], [[coma]], and [[stroke]]. Depending on the type of the [[Primary tumor|primary cancer]], the age of the patient, absence or presence of extracranial metastases, and the number of metastatic sites in the brain at the time of diagnosis, the prognosis may vary. However, the prognosis is generally regarded as poor. The median survival time of all patients with intracerebral metastases is 2.3 months.<ref name=prognosisofintracerebralmetastasis1>Prognosis of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref> | |||
== | ==Diagnosis== | ||
===Staging=== | |||
There is no established system for the staging of Intracerebral metastases. | |||
===History and Symptoms=== | |||
When evaluating a patient for intracerebral metastases, you should take a detailed history of the presenting symptom (onset, duration, and progression), other associated symptoms, and a thorough family and past medical history review. Other specific areas of focus when obtaining the history include review of the primary tumor (lung, brain, melanoma, colorectal cancer).<ref name=causesofintracerebralmetastasis>Causes of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=causesofintracerebralmetastasis2>Epidemiology of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name="RahmathullaToms2012">{{cite journal|last1=Rahmathulla|first1=Gazanfar|last2=Toms|first2=Steven A.|last3=Weil|first3=Robert J.|title=The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis|journal=Journal of Oncology|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=1687-8450|doi=10.1155/2012/723541}}</ref> 60-75% of patients with intracerebral metastases may be asymptomatic.<ref name=symptomsofbrainmetastasis1>Clinical presentation of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref> Symptoms of intracerebral metastases include [[headache]], [[seizures]], [[visual loss|visual disturbances]], [[cognition|cognitive dysfunction]], [[paresthesia]], and [[muscle weakness]].<ref name=symptomsofbrainmetastasis1>Clinical presentation of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=symptomsofbrainmetastases2>Symptoms of brain metastases. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=symptomsofbrainmetastases3>Symptoms of metastatic brain tumor. US national library of medicine 2015. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000769.htm. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal | |||
| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref> | |||
===Physical examination=== | |||
Common physical examination findings of intracerebral metastases include [[bradycardia]], [[systolic blood pressure|high systolic blood pressure]] with [[widened pulse pressure]], [[papilledema]], [[altered mental status]], [[ataxia]], and focal neurological deficits.<ref name=symptomsofbrainmetastases2>Symptoms of brain metastases. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref><ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal | |||
| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref> | |||
===Laboratory Findings=== | |||
There are no diagnostic lab findings associated with intracerebral metastases. | |||
===Chest X Ray=== | |||
There are no chest x-ray findings associated with intracerebral metastases. However, a large mass may be observed on chest x-ray, which may be suggestive of the primary lung tumor.<ref name=xrayfindings1>Bronchogenic carcinoma metastasis. Dr. Hani Al Salam. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/cases/bronchogenic-carcinoma-metastasis. Accessed on November 13, 2015</ref> | |||
===CT=== | |||
Head CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases. On CT scan, intracerebral metastases are characterized by iso- to hypodense mass with zero to marked peritumoral [[edema]]. On contrast administration, variable enhancement (intense, punctuate, nodular, or ring-enhanced) may be present.<ref name=ctfindingsbrainmets1>Radiographic CT features of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. accessed on November 13, 2015</ref> | |||
===MRI=== | |||
Brain MRI is helpful in the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases. On MRI, intracerebral metastases are characterized by iso- to hypointensity on T1-weighted imaging and hyperintense portion on T2-weighted imaging. On contrast administration, intense enhancement is observed (uniform, punctate, or ring-enhancing). Peritumoral [[edema]] which is out of proportion with tumor size is observed on diffusion weighted imaging.<ref name=mriofbrainmets1>Radiographic MRI features of brain metastasis. Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases</ref> | |||
===Ultrasound=== | |||
There are no ultrasound findings associated with intracerebral metastases. | |||
===Other Imaging Findings=== | |||
Other imaging tests for intracerebral metastases include [[Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy|MR spectroscopy]] (intratumoural [[choline]] and [[lipid]] peak with depleted [[N-Acetylaspartate|N-acetylaspartate]]), [[Perfusion weighted imaging|MR perfusion]] (reduced cerebral blood volume and cerebral blood flow in the region of [[metastasis]]), and [[PET|positron emission tomography]] (hypermetabolic, hypometabolic, or variable metabolism depending on the primary).<ref name=mriofbrainmets1>Radiographic MRI features of brain metastasis. Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases</ref><ref name=nuclear1>Nuclear medicine for brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 13, 2015</ref> | |||
===Other Diagnostic Studies=== | |||
[[Brain biopsy]] is done to confirm the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases, if the type of primary tumor is unknown or the etiology of the brain abnormality is unknown.<ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref> Histopathological findings on biopsy of intracerebral metastases can be found [[Intracerebral metastases pathophysiology|'''here''']].<ref name=microscopicpathologyofintracerebralmetastasis1>Microscopic features of brain metastasis. Libre pathology 2015. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015</ref><ref name=micro2>Microscopic appearance of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 10, 2015</ref> | |||
==Treatment== | |||
===Medical Therapy=== | |||
The optimal therapy for intracerebral metastases depends on the number, size, and location of the metastatic lesions. The various treatment options for intracerebral metastases include symptomatic treatment ([[corticosteroids]] and [[anticonvulsants]]), [[radiotherapy|whole brain radiotherapy]], [[chemotherapy]], [[stereotactic radiosurgery]], and [[surgery]].<ref name=historicalperspectiveofintracerebralmetastases>{{Cite journal| author = [[Andrew B. Lassman]] & [[Lisa M. DeAngelis]] | title = Brain metastases | journal = [[Neurologic clinics]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2003 | month = February | pmid = 12690643}}</ref><ref name="Khuntia2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khuntia|first1=Deepak|title=Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation|journal=Advances in Neuroscience|volume=2015|year=2015|pages=1–13|issn=2356-6787|doi=10.1155/2015/372856}}</ref><ref name=symptomaticrxofbrainmets2>Symptomatic treatment of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015</ref><ref name=radiationforbrainmets1>Radiation therapy for intracerebral metastases. Canadian cancer institute 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/treatment/?region=on. Accessed on November 13, 2015</ref><ref name=symptomaticrxofbrainmetastasis1>Symptomatic treatment of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015</ref> | |||
===Surgery=== | |||
[[Surgery]] is not the first-line treatment option for patients with intracerebral metastases. Surgical resection is usually reserved for patients with either a solitary brain metastasis or no extracranial spread of the primary tumor. [[Stereotactic radiosurgery]] is indicated if there are multiple (< 3) but small metastatic tumor masses.<ref name=surgeryofbrainmets1>Surgery of brain metastases. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/treatment/?region=on. Accessed on November 13, 2015</ref> | |||
===Primary Prevention=== | |||
There are no primary preventive measures available for intracerebral metastases. | |||
===Secondary Prevention=== | |||
There are no secondary preventive measures available for intracerebral metastases. | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Latest revision as of 20:48, 23 November 2015
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Intracerebral metastases Microchapters |
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Differentiating Intracerebral Metastases from other Diseases |
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Diagnosis |
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Treatment |
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Case Studies |
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Intracerebral metastases overview On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Intracerebral metastases overview |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for Intracerebral metastases overview |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sujit Routray, M.D. [2]
Overview
Intracerebral metastases are cancers that have metastasized to the brain from another location in the body.[1] Intracerebral metastases are different from the cancer that starts in the brain (called primary brain cancer). Primary brain tumors occur much less often than intracerebral metastases. It is estimated that 20–40% of intracerebral tumors are metastatic.[2] Cancers that start in the brain usually remain in one place (solitary mass). If there is more than one tumor in the brain, they are most probably intracerebral metastases. The ability of cancer cells to sever their link to the primary tumor site and commence the metastatic process, once specific functions have been acquired by an appropriate subset of cancer cells. The multistep cascade can be grouped into two stages: migration (intravasation, dissemination, and extravasation) and colonization.[3] Genes involved in the pathogenesis of intracerebral metastases include RHoC, LOX, VEGF, and CSF1.[3] On gross pathology, intracerebral metastases are characterized by single-to-multiple masses typically found in the watershed areas of the brain, that are sharply demarcated from the surrounding parenchyma and usually have a zone of peritumoral edema that is out of proportion with the tumor size.[4][5] On microscopic histopathological analysis, intracerebral metastases are characterized by tubule formation, well-circumscribed and sharply demarcated from surrounding tissues, with mitoses and nuclear atypia. Intracerebral metastases are demonstrated by positivity to tumor markers such as pankeratin, TTF-1, CK7, and CK20.[6] Common causes of intracerebral metastases include lung cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, and colorectal cancer.[7][8][3] Occasionally, cancer spreads to the brain but the original location of the cancer in the body (primary site) is not known. This is called cancer of unknown primary (CUP).[9][10] Intracranial metastases must be differentiated from glioblastoma multiforme, meningioma, primary CNS lymphoma, stroke, and epilepsy.[11][12] Intracerebral metastases are the most common intracranial tumors in adults, occurring in up to 30% of adult cancer patients.[5] They are estimated to account for approximately 25-50% of intracranial tumors in hospitalised patients.[13] The incidence of intracerebral metastases is estimated to be 200,000 cases annually in the United States.[14] The incidence of intracerebral metastases increases with age. The peak incidence occurs in patients over 65 years of age.[15] Intracerebral metastases affect men and women equally.[15] If left untreated, patients with intracerebral metastases may progress to develop seizures, altered mental status, hemiplegia, focal neurological deficits, hemorrhage, brain herniation, coma, and death.[16][11] Common complications of intracerebral metastases include brain herniation, hemorrhage, coma, and stroke. Depending on the type of the primary cancer, the age of the patient, absence or presence of extracranial metastases, and the number of metastatic sites in the brain at the time of diagnosis, the prognosis may vary. However, the prognosis is generally regarded as poor. The median survival time of all patients with intracerebral metastases is 2.3 months.[17][5] Symptoms of intracerebral metastases include headache, seizures, visual disturbances, cognitive dysfunction, paresthesia, and muscle weakness. Common physical examination findings of intracerebral metastases include bradycardia, high systolic blood pressure with widened pulse pressure, papilledema, altered mental status, ataxia, and focal neurological deficits.[18][11] Head CT scan and brain MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases. On CT scan, intracerebral metastases are characterized by iso- to hypodense mass with zero to marked peritumoral edema. On contrast administration, variable enhancement (intense, punctuate, nodular, or ring-enhanced) may be present.[19] On MRI, intracerebral metastases are characterized by iso- to hypointensity on T1-weighted imaging and hyperintense portion on T2-weighted imaging. On contrast administration, intense enhancement is observed (uniform, punctate, or ring-enhancing). Peritumoral edema which is out of proportion with tumor size is observed on diffusion weighted imaging.[20] Other imaging tests for intracerebral metastases include MR spectroscopy (intratumoural choline and lipid peak with depleted N-acetylaspartate), MR perfusion (reduced cerebral blood volume and cerebral blood flow in the region of metastasis), and positron emission tomography (hypermetabolic, hypometabolic, or variable metabolism depending on the primary).[20][21] Brain biopsy is done to confirm the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases, if the type of primary tumor is unknown or the etiology of the brain abnormality is unknown.[5] Histopathological findings on biopsy of intracerebral metastases can be found here.[22][23] The optimal therapy for intracerebral metastases depends on the number, size, and location of the metastatic lesions. The various treatment options for intracerebral metastases include symptomatic treatment (corticosteroids and anticonvulsants), whole brain radiotherapy, chemotherapy, stereotactic radiosurgery, and surgery.[11][5][24][25][26]
Historical Perspective
Intracerebral metastases was first described by Posner and Chernik, following the largest and most comprehensive autopsy series at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center from 1970 to 1976.[11]
Classification
There is no classification system established for intracerebral metastases.
Pathophysiology
Intracerebral metastases are different from the cancer that starts in the brain (called primary brain cancer). Primary brain tumors occur much less often than intracerebral metastases. It is estimated that 20–40% of intracerebral tumors are metastatic.[2] Cancers that start in the brain usually remain in one place (solitary mass). If there is more than one tumor in the brain, they are most probably intracerebral metastases. The ability of cancer cells to sever their link to the primary tumor site and commence the metastatic process, once specific functions have been acquired by an appropriate subset of cancer cells. The multistep cascade can be grouped into two stages: migration (intravasation, dissemination, and extravasation) and colonization.[3] Genes involved in the pathogenesis of intracerebral metastases include RHoC, LOX, VEGF, and CSF1.[3] On gross pathology, intracerebral metastases are characterized by single-to-multiple masses typically found in the watershed areas of the brain, that are sharply demarcated from the surrounding parenchyma and usually have a zone of peritumoral edema that is out of proportion with the tumor size.[4][5] On microscopic histopathological analysis, intracerebral metastases are characterized by tubule formation, well-circumscribed and sharply demarcated from surrounding tissues, with mitoses and nuclear atypia. Intracerebral metastases are demonstrated by positivity to tumor markers such as pankeratin, TTF-1, CK7, and CK20.[6]
Causes
Common causes of intracerebral metastases include lung cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, and colorectal cancer.[7][8][3] Occasionally, cancer spreads to the brain but the original location of the cancer in the body (primary site) is not known. This is called cancer of unknown primary (CUP).[9][10]
Differentiating Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytoma from other Diseases
Intracranial metastases must be differentiated from glioblastoma multiforme, meningioma, primary CNS lymphoma, stroke, and epilepsy.[11][12]
Epidemiology and Demographics
Intracerebral metastases are the most common intracranial tumors in adults, occurring in up to 30% of adult cancer patients.[5] They are estimated to account for approximately 25-50% of intracranial tumors in hospitalised patients.[13] The incidence of intracerebral metastases is estimated to be 200,000 cases annually in the United States.[14] The incidence of intracerebral metastases increases with age. The peak incidence occurs in patients over 65 years of age.[15] Intracerebral metastases affect men and women equally.[15]
Risk factors
The risk of developing intracerebral metastases depends on the type and location of the primary tumor. Primary tumors that are commonly associated with the development of brain metastasis include lung cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, and colorectal carcinoma.[7][8][3]
Screening
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for intracerebral metastases.
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
If left untreated, patients with intracerebral metastases may progress to develop seizures, altered mental status, hemiplegia, focal neurological deficits, hemorrhage, brain herniation, coma, and death.[16][11] Common complications of intracerebral metastases include brain herniation, hemorrhage, coma, and stroke. Depending on the type of the primary cancer, the age of the patient, absence or presence of extracranial metastases, and the number of metastatic sites in the brain at the time of diagnosis, the prognosis may vary. However, the prognosis is generally regarded as poor. The median survival time of all patients with intracerebral metastases is 2.3 months.[17][5]
Diagnosis
Staging
There is no established system for the staging of Intracerebral metastases.
History and Symptoms
When evaluating a patient for intracerebral metastases, you should take a detailed history of the presenting symptom (onset, duration, and progression), other associated symptoms, and a thorough family and past medical history review. Other specific areas of focus when obtaining the history include review of the primary tumor (lung, brain, melanoma, colorectal cancer).[7][8][3] 60-75% of patients with intracerebral metastases may be asymptomatic.[16] Symptoms of intracerebral metastases include headache, seizures, visual disturbances, cognitive dysfunction, paresthesia, and muscle weakness.[16][18][27][11]
Physical examination
Common physical examination findings of intracerebral metastases include bradycardia, high systolic blood pressure with widened pulse pressure, papilledema, altered mental status, ataxia, and focal neurological deficits.[18][11]
Laboratory Findings
There are no diagnostic lab findings associated with intracerebral metastases.
Chest X Ray
There are no chest x-ray findings associated with intracerebral metastases. However, a large mass may be observed on chest x-ray, which may be suggestive of the primary lung tumor.[28]
CT
Head CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases. On CT scan, intracerebral metastases are characterized by iso- to hypodense mass with zero to marked peritumoral edema. On contrast administration, variable enhancement (intense, punctuate, nodular, or ring-enhanced) may be present.[19]
MRI
Brain MRI is helpful in the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases. On MRI, intracerebral metastases are characterized by iso- to hypointensity on T1-weighted imaging and hyperintense portion on T2-weighted imaging. On contrast administration, intense enhancement is observed (uniform, punctate, or ring-enhancing). Peritumoral edema which is out of proportion with tumor size is observed on diffusion weighted imaging.[20]
Ultrasound
There are no ultrasound findings associated with intracerebral metastases.
Other Imaging Findings
Other imaging tests for intracerebral metastases include MR spectroscopy (intratumoural choline and lipid peak with depleted N-acetylaspartate), MR perfusion (reduced cerebral blood volume and cerebral blood flow in the region of metastasis), and positron emission tomography (hypermetabolic, hypometabolic, or variable metabolism depending on the primary).[20][21]
Other Diagnostic Studies
Brain biopsy is done to confirm the diagnosis of intracerebral metastases, if the type of primary tumor is unknown or the etiology of the brain abnormality is unknown.[5] Histopathological findings on biopsy of intracerebral metastases can be found here.[22][23]
Treatment
Medical Therapy
The optimal therapy for intracerebral metastases depends on the number, size, and location of the metastatic lesions. The various treatment options for intracerebral metastases include symptomatic treatment (corticosteroids and anticonvulsants), whole brain radiotherapy, chemotherapy, stereotactic radiosurgery, and surgery.[11][5][24][25][26]
Surgery
Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with intracerebral metastases. Surgical resection is usually reserved for patients with either a solitary brain metastasis or no extracranial spread of the primary tumor. Stereotactic radiosurgery is indicated if there are multiple (< 3) but small metastatic tumor masses.[29]
Primary Prevention
There are no primary preventive measures available for intracerebral metastases.
Secondary Prevention
There are no secondary preventive measures available for intracerebral metastases.
References
- ↑ Introduction to brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 17, 2015
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Introduction to brain metastases. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/?region=on. Accessed on November 13, 2015
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Rahmathulla, Gazanfar; Toms, Steven A.; Weil, Robert J. (2012). "The Molecular Biology of Brain Metastasis". Journal of Oncology. 2012: 1–16. doi:10.1155/2012/723541. ISSN 1687-8450.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Gross appearance pathology of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 16, 2015
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Khuntia, Deepak (2015). "Contemporary Review of the Management of Brain Metastasis with Radiation". Advances in Neuroscience. 2015: 1–13. doi:10.1155/2015/372856. ISSN 2356-6787.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 IHC features of brain metastasis. Libre pathology 2015. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Causes of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Epidemiology of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Cancers that spread to the brain. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/?region=on. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Fabi, Alessandra; Felici, Alessandra; Metro, Giulio; Mirri, Alessandra; Bria, Emilio; Telera, Stefano; Moscetti, Luca; Russillo, Michelangelo; Lanzetta, Gaetano; Mansueto, Giovanni; Pace, Andrea; Maschio, Marta; Vidiri, Antonello; Sperduti, Isabella; Cognetti, Francesco; Carapella, Carmine M (2011). "Brain metastases from solid tumors: disease outcome according to type of treatment and therapeutic resources of the treating center". Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research. 30 (1): 10. doi:10.1186/1756-9966-30-10. ISSN 1756-9966.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 Andrew B. Lassman & Lisa M. DeAngelis (2003). "Brain metastases". Neurologic clinics. 21 (1): 1–23. PMID 12690643. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ 12.0 12.1 Differential diagnosis of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Introduction to brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 16, 2015
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Epidemiology of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Incidence of metastatic brain tumors. American Brain Tumor Association 2015. http://www.abta.org/secure/metastatic-brain-tumor.pdf. Accessed on November 16, 2015
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Clinical presentation of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Prognosis of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Symptoms of brain metastases. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Radiographic CT features of brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. accessed on November 13, 2015
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Radiographic MRI features of brain metastasis. Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Nuclear medicine for brain metastasis. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 13, 2015
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Microscopic features of brain metastasis. Libre pathology 2015. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Microscopic appearance of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 10, 2015
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Symptomatic treatment of brain metastasis. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_metastasis. Accessed on November 10, 2015
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Radiation therapy for intracerebral metastases. Canadian cancer institute 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/treatment/?region=on. Accessed on November 13, 2015
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Symptomatic treatment of brain metastases. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Trent Orton et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/brain-metastases. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ Symptoms of metastatic brain tumor. US national library of medicine 2015. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000769.htm. Accessed on November 9, 2015
- ↑ Bronchogenic carcinoma metastasis. Dr. Hani Al Salam. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/cases/bronchogenic-carcinoma-metastasis. Accessed on November 13, 2015
- ↑ Surgery of brain metastases. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/metastatic-cancer/brain-metastases/treatment/?region=on. Accessed on November 13, 2015