Gastrointestinal perforation surgery: Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
==Overview==
Surgery is the mainstay therapy for [[gastrointestinal tract]] (GIT) perforation. The main indications are abdominal [[sepsis]], worsening [[abdominal pain]], signs of diffuse [[peritonitis]], complete [[bowel obstruction]], bowel [[ischemia]]. In esophageal perforation, surgical options include primary repair, repair over a drain. Primary repair is the best procedure for thoracic esophageal rupture. It is performed when the closure can heal. Endoscopically-placed-stents can be used to manage some patients with esophageal perforation.  
Surgery is the mainstay therapy for [[gastrointestinal tract]] (GIT) perforation. The main indications are abdominal [[sepsis]], worsening [[abdominal pain]], signs of diffuse [[peritonitis]], complete [[bowel obstruction]], bowel [[ischemia]]. In esophageal perforation, surgical options include primary repair, repair over a drain. Primary repair is the best procedure for thoracic esophageal rupture. It is performed when the closure can heal. Endoscopically-placed-stents can be used to manage some patients with esophageal perforation. In perforated stomach, if the patient is '''unstable''' or deteriorating, urgent operation and closure with a piece of [[omentum]] is the standard of care. If the patient is '''stable''' or improving, nonoperative management with close monitoring is a reasonable option. If patients did not show clinical improvement after 24 hours, surgery was performed. In colonic resection, A '''one-stage''' colon resection for diverticulitis can be performed open or [[Laparoscopic surgery|laparoscopically]]. The laparoscopic approach is preferred when feasible. A '''two-stage''' procedure is primarily used for patients with Hinchey III or IV [[diverticulitis]], and for those with Hinchey I or II diverticulitis who have excessive contamination or inflammation of the surrounding tissues or other risk factors for anastomotic leakage. In perforated appendix, stable patients with perforated appendicitis who have symptoms localized to the right lower quadrant can be treated with immediate appendectomy or initial nonoperative management. Patients with an appendiceal [[abscess]] should be treated with intravenous [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]] and percutaneous [[Image-guided surgery|image-guided drainage]]. For patients who are septic or unstable, and for those who have a free perforation of the [[appendix]] or [[Peritonitis|generalized peritonitis]], [[Appendectomy|emergency appendectomy]] is required.  


== Gastrointestinal perforation surgery ==
== Gastrointestinal perforation surgery ==
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* Open surgery is the mainstay of treatment.<ref name="pmid3579023">{{cite journal| author=Nesbitt JC, Sawyers JL| title=Surgical management of esophageal perforation. | journal=Am Surg | year= 1987 | volume= 53 | issue= 4 | pages= 183-91 | pmid=3579023 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3579023  }}</ref>  
* Open surgery is the mainstay of treatment.<ref name="pmid3579023">{{cite journal| author=Nesbitt JC, Sawyers JL| title=Surgical management of esophageal perforation. | journal=Am Surg | year= 1987 | volume= 53 | issue= 4 | pages= 183-91 | pmid=3579023 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3579023  }}</ref>  
* Surgical options include primary repair, repair over a drain.<ref name="pmid17993968">{{cite journal| author=Wu JT, Mattox KL, Wall MJ| title=Esophageal perforations: new perspectives and treatment paradigms. | journal=J Trauma | year= 2007 | volume= 63 | issue= 5 | pages= 1173-84 | pmid=17993968 | doi=10.1097/TA.0b013e31805c0dd4 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17993968  }}</ref>  
* Surgical options include primary repair, repair over a drain.<ref name="pmid17993968">{{cite journal| author=Wu JT, Mattox KL, Wall MJ| title=Esophageal perforations: new perspectives and treatment paradigms. | journal=J Trauma | year= 2007 | volume= 63 | issue= 5 | pages= 1173-84 | pmid=17993968 | doi=10.1097/TA.0b013e31805c0dd4 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17993968  }}</ref>  
* Primary repair is the best procedure for thoracic esophageal rupture. It is performed when the closure can heal.  
* Primary repair is the best procedure for [[thoracic]] [[esophageal rupture]]. It is performed when the closure can heal.  
* Endoscopically-placed-stents can be used to manage some patients with esophageal perforation.  
* [[Endoscopic|Endoscopically]]-placed-stents can be used to manage some patients with [[esophageal perforation]].  
* A laparotomy is the preferred approach to repair a perforation of an intra-abdominal esophagus.<ref name="pmid11232687">{{cite journal| author=Schmitz RJ, Sharma P, Badr AS, Qamar MT, Weston AP| title=Incidence and management of esophageal stricture formation, ulcer bleeding, perforation, and massive hematoma formation from sclerotherapy versus band ligation. | journal=Am J Gastroenterol | year= 2001 | volume= 96 | issue= 2 | pages= 437-41 | pmid=11232687 | doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03460.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11232687  }}</ref>  
* A [[laparotomy]] is the preferred approach to repair a perforation of an intra-abdominal [[esophagus]].<ref name="pmid11232687">{{cite journal| author=Schmitz RJ, Sharma P, Badr AS, Qamar MT, Weston AP| title=Incidence and management of esophageal stricture formation, ulcer bleeding, perforation, and massive hematoma formation from sclerotherapy versus band ligation. | journal=Am J Gastroenterol | year= 2001 | volume= 96 | issue= 2 | pages= 437-41 | pmid=11232687 | doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03460.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11232687  }}</ref>  
* Complications associated with stents include bleeding, fistula, and injury to adjacent structures.
* Complications associated with stents include [[bleeding]], [[fistula]], and injury to adjacent structures.
* When there has been a delay in diagnosis greater than 24 hours, a vascularized pedicle flap can be used to overcome the lack of integrity in the mucosa.  
* When there has been a delay in diagnosis greater than 24 hours, a vascularized [[Pedicles|pedicle]] flap can be used to overcome the lack of integrity in the [[Mucous membrane|mucosa]].  
* The most common flap used is the intercostal muscle flap.<ref name="pmid19001058">{{cite journal| author=Isomoto H, Shikuwa S, Yamaguchi N, Fukuda E, Ikeda K, Nishiyama H et al.| title=Endoscopic submucosal dissection for early gastric cancer: a large-scale feasibility study. | journal=Gut | year= 2009 | volume= 58 | issue= 3 | pages= 331-6 | pmid=19001058 | doi=10.1136/gut.2008.165381 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19001058  }}</ref>
* The most common flap used is the [[intercostal muscle]] flap.<ref name="pmid19001058">{{cite journal| author=Isomoto H, Shikuwa S, Yamaguchi N, Fukuda E, Ikeda K, Nishiyama H et al.| title=Endoscopic submucosal dissection for early gastric cancer: a large-scale feasibility study. | journal=Gut | year= 2009 | volume= 58 | issue= 3 | pages= 331-6 | pmid=19001058 | doi=10.1136/gut.2008.165381 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19001058  }}</ref>


== Video shows endoscopically-placed-stent in esophageal perforation ==
== Video shows endoscopically-placed-stent in esophageal perforation ==
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==== <u>Follow-up</u> ====
==== <u>Follow-up</u> ====
* Fifty percent of patients with perforated duodenal ulcers have sealed spontaneously when first examined.
* Fifty percent of patients with perforated [[Peptic ulcer|duodenal ulcers]] have sealed spontaneously when first examined.
* Nonoperative management may also be considered for patients with delayed presentations.
* Nonoperative management may also be considered for patients with delayed presentations.
* Patients with perforated ulcers should have an upper endoscopy to look for evidence of malignancy.  
* Patients with perforated ulcers should have an [[upper endoscopy]] to look for evidence of [[malignancy]].  
* It is important to obtain a biopsy of the ulcer margins in all patients with a gastric perforation to rule out gastric carcinoma.  
* It is important to obtain a biopsy of the ulcer margins in all patients with a gastric perforation to rule out [[gastric carcinoma]].  
* If the procedure does not need to be done urgently, we prefer to wait six to eight weeks to allow for ulcer healing.
* If the procedure does not need to be done urgently, we prefer to wait six to eight weeks to allow for [[ulcer]] healing.


== Video shows endoscopical surgery in gastric perforation ==
== Video shows endoscopical surgery in gastric perforation ==
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== Colon and rectum perforation management ==
== Colon and rectum perforation management ==
*  Most cases of [[diverticulitis]] with perforation or small [[abscess]] can be treated nonoperatively with antibiotics with or without percutaneous drainage.
*  Most cases of [[diverticulitis]] with perforation or small [[abscess]] can be treated nonoperatively with antibiotics with or without percutaneous drainage.
* If the perforation is small, simple suture using a laparoscopic approach can be an ideal approach. Patients who deteriorate or fail to improve after three to five days of inpatient intravenous antibiotics may require urgent surgery.<ref name="pmid18594917">{{cite journal| author=Albuquerque W, Moreira E, Arantes V, Bittencourt P, Queiroz F| title=Endoscopic repair of a large colonoscopic perforation with clips. | journal=Surg Endosc | year= 2008 | volume= 22 | issue= 9 | pages= 2072-4 | pmid=18594917 | doi=10.1007/s00464-008-9782-6 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18594917  }}</ref>  
* If the perforation is small, simple suture using a laparoscopic approach can be an ideal approach. Patients who deteriorate or fail to improve after three to five days of inpatient intravenous [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]] may require urgent surgery.<ref name="pmid18594917">{{cite journal| author=Albuquerque W, Moreira E, Arantes V, Bittencourt P, Queiroz F| title=Endoscopic repair of a large colonoscopic perforation with clips. | journal=Surg Endosc | year= 2008 | volume= 22 | issue= 9 | pages= 2072-4 | pmid=18594917 | doi=10.1007/s00464-008-9782-6 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18594917  }}</ref>  
* If the perforation is larger, colon resection will be necessary. Acute diverticulitis with free perforation is a life-threatening condition that mandates emergency surgery.<ref name="pmid18266887">{{cite journal| author=Abdelrazeq AS, Scott N, Thorn C, Verbeke CS, Ambrose NS, Botterill ID et al.| title=The impact of spontaneous tumour perforation on outcome following colon cancer surgery. | journal=Colorectal Dis | year= 2008 | volume= 10 | issue= 8 | pages= 775-80 | pmid=18266887 | doi=10.1111/j.1463-1318.2007.01412.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18266887  }}</ref>  
* If the perforation is larger, colon resection will be necessary. Acute [[diverticulitis]] with free perforation is a life-threatening condition that mandates emergency surgery.<ref name="pmid18266887">{{cite journal| author=Abdelrazeq AS, Scott N, Thorn C, Verbeke CS, Ambrose NS, Botterill ID et al.| title=The impact of spontaneous tumour perforation on outcome following colon cancer surgery. | journal=Colorectal Dis | year= 2008 | volume= 10 | issue= 8 | pages= 775-80 | pmid=18266887 | doi=10.1111/j.1463-1318.2007.01412.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18266887  }}</ref>  
* Patients with a perforated colon due to neoplasm also require resection.<ref name="pmid10037307">{{cite journal| author=Curran TJ, Borzotta AP| title=Complications of primary repair of colon injury: literature review of 2,964 cases. | journal=Am J Surg | year= 1999 | volume= 177 | issue= 1 | pages= 42-7 | pmid=10037307 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10037307  }}</ref>   
* Patients with a perforated colon due to [[neoplasm]] also require resection.<ref name="pmid10037307">{{cite journal| author=Curran TJ, Borzotta AP| title=Complications of primary repair of colon injury: literature review of 2,964 cases. | journal=Am J Surg | year= 1999 | volume= 177 | issue= 1 | pages= 42-7 | pmid=10037307 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10037307  }}</ref>   
* A primary anastomosis is preferred if applicable.<ref name="pmid10733108">{{cite journal| author=Wong WD, Wexner SD, Lowry A, Vernava A, Burnstein M, Denstman F et al.| title=Practice parameters for the treatment of sigmoid diverticulitis--supporting documentation. The Standards Task Force. The American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons. | journal=Dis Colon Rectum | year= 2000 | volume= 43 | issue= 3 | pages= 290-7 | pmid=10733108 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10733108  }}</ref>  
* A primary anastomosis is preferred if applicable.<ref name="pmid10733108">{{cite journal| author=Wong WD, Wexner SD, Lowry A, Vernava A, Burnstein M, Denstman F et al.| title=Practice parameters for the treatment of sigmoid diverticulitis--supporting documentation. The Standards Task Force. The American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons. | journal=Dis Colon Rectum | year= 2000 | volume= 43 | issue= 3 | pages= 290-7 | pmid=10733108 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10733108  }}</ref>  
* Since most patients with diverticulitis are treated medically, surgery is only indicated in medically refractory cases.
* Since most patients with diverticulitis are treated medically, surgery is only indicated in medically refractory cases.


==== Colonic obstruction ====
==== Colonic obstruction ====
* Patients who present with colonic obstruction should undergo surgical resection of the involved colonic segment.  
* Patients who present with colonic [[Intestinal obstruction|obstruction]] should undergo surgical resection of the involved colonic segment.  
* Surgery is required to rule out cancer and also to relieve symptoms of obstruction.
* Surgery is required to rule out cancer and also to relieve symptoms of obstruction.
* Endoluminal stenting may not be helpful for colonic obstruction caused by diverticulitis due to high rates of failure, perforation, or stent migration.
* Endoluminal stenting may not be helpful for colonic obstruction caused by diverticulitis due to high rates of failure, perforation, or stent migration.
* Diverticular abscess is treated with percutaneous image-guided drainage or with intravenous antibiotics. In case of failed conservative therapy, urgent surgery is indicated.
* [[Diverticular abscess]] is treated with percutaneous image-guided drainage or with intravenous [[antibiotics]]. In case of failed conservative therapy, urgent surgery is indicated.


====== Fistula ======
====== Fistula ======
* Diverticular fistulas rarely close spontaneously and require surgical correction.  
* [[Fistulas]] due to [[diverticulitis]] do not close spontaneously and require surgical correction.  


==== Chronic smoldering diverticulitis ====
==== Chronic smoldering diverticulitis ====
* Patients with acute diverticulitis who initially respond to medical treatment but subsequently develop recurrent symptoms are described as having chronic smoldering diverticulitis.
* Patients with [[Diverticulitis|acute diverticulitis]] who initially respond to medical treatment but subsequently develop recurrent symptoms are described as having chronic smoldering diverticulitis.
* If the symptoms persist for longer than six weeks, patients should be referred for surgical evaluation.  
* If the symptoms persist for longer than six weeks, patients should be referred for surgical evaluation.  


==== Asymptomatic but high-risk patients ====
==== Asymptomatic but high-risk patients ====
* Elective surgery is indicated for patients who had a previous episode of complicated diverticulitis.
* [[Elective surgery]] is indicated for patients who had a previous episode of complicated [[diverticulitis]].
* For immunocompromised patients, elective surgery should be offered after a single attack of diverticulitis.
* For [[immunocompromised]] patients, [[elective surgery]] should be offered after a single attack of [[diverticulitis]].


=== Techniques ===
=== Techniques ===
* A '''one-stage''' colon resection for diverticulitis can be performed open or laparoscopically. The laparoscopic approach is preferred when feasible. Growing evidence suggests that laparoscopic surgery in this setting can be performed safely with superior short-term outcomes and comparable long-term outcomes [25-35].  
* A '''one-stage''' colon resection for diverticulitis can be performed open or [[Laparoscopic surgery|laparoscopically]]. The laparoscopic approach is preferred when feasible. Growing evidence suggests that laparoscopic surgery in this setting can be performed safely with superior short-term outcomes and comparable long-term outcomes.<ref name="pmid28642675">{{cite journal| author=Feigel A, Sylla P| title=Role of Minimally Invasive Surgery in the Reoperative Abdomen or Pelvis. | journal=Clin Colon Rectal Surg | year= 2016 | volume= 29 | issue= 2 | pages= 168-180 | pmid=28642675 | doi=10.1055/s-0036-1580637 | pmc=5477556 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28642675  }}</ref>
* A '''two-stage''' procedure is primarily used for patients with Hinchey III or IV diverticulitis, and for those with Hinchey I or II diverticulitis who have excessive contamination or inflammation of the surrounding tissues or other risk factors for anastomotic leakage.
* A '''two-stage''' procedure is primarily used for patients with Hinchey III or IV [[diverticulitis]], and for those with Hinchey I or II diverticulitis who have excessive contamination or inflammation of the surrounding tissues or other risk factors for anastomotic leakage.<ref name="pmid24398208">{{cite journal| author=Abbass MA, Tsay AT, Abbas MA| title=Laparoscopic resection of chronic sigmoid diverticulitis with fistula. | journal=JSLS | year= 2013 | volume= 17 | issue= 4 | pages= 636-40 | pmid=24398208 | doi=10.4293/108680813X13693422520512 | pmc=3866070 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24398208  }}</ref>


* Hartmann's procedure is the most commonly performed two-stage procedure and the preferred approach.
* [[Hartmann's operation|Hartmann's procedure]] is the most commonly performed two-stage procedure and the preferred approach.
* Hartmann's procedure involves resecting the diseased colonic segment, creating an end colostomy and a rectal stump, followed by a reversal of the colostomy three months later. [18].
* Hartmann's procedure involves resecting the diseased [[Colon|colonic]] segment, creating an end [[colostomy]] and a rectal stump, followed by a reversal of the colostomy three months later.
* Colonic resection with primary anastomosis and protective ostomy
* Colonic resection with primary [[anastomosis]] and protective ostomy.<ref name="pmid27477991">{{cite journal| author=Otani T, Isohata N, Kumamoto K, Endo S, Utano K, Nemoto D et al.| title=An evidence-based medicine approach to the laparoscopic treatment of colorectal cancer. | journal=Fukushima J Med Sci | year= 2016 | volume= 62 | issue= 2 | pages= 74-82 | pmid=27477991 | doi=10.5387/fms.2016-4 | pmc=5283946 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27477991  }}</ref>
Video shows {{#ev:youtube|b0msKgqTjDU}}
Video shows {{#ev:youtube|b0msKgqTjDU}}


==== Reconstruction ====
==== Reconstruction ====
The choice of reconstructive techniques largely depends upon the extent of peritoneal contamination as assessed by the Hinchey classification system:  [22]
The choice of reconstructive techniques largely depends upon the extent of peritoneal contamination as assessed by the Hinchey classification system:<ref name="pmid21928041">{{cite journal| author=Klarenbeek BR, de Korte N, van der Peet DL, Cuesta MA| title=Review of current classifications for diverticular disease and a translation into clinical practice. | journal=Int J Colorectal Dis | year= 2012 | volume= 27 | issue= 2 | pages= 207-14 | pmid=21928041 | doi=10.1007/s00384-011-1314-5 | pmc=3267934 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21928041 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Stages
!Stages
Line 118: Line 118:
|-
|-
|I
|I
|Pericolic or mesenteric abscess
|Pericolic or [[Mesentery|mesenteric]] [[abscess]]
|-
|-
|IIa
|IIa
|Distant abscess amendable to percutaneous drainage
|Distant abscess amendable to [[percutaneous]] drainage
|-
|-
|IIb
|IIb
|Complex abscess associated with fistula
|Complex abscess associated with [[fistula]]
|-
|-
|III
|III
|Generalized purulent peritonitis
|Generalized [[purulent]] [[peritonitis]]
|-
|-
|IV
|IV
|Fecal peritonitis
|Fecal [[peritonitis]]
|}
|}


==References==
==References==
<references />
<references />

Revision as of 04:04, 4 February 2018


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mohammed Abdelwahed M.D[2]

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Overview

Surgery is the mainstay therapy for gastrointestinal tract (GIT) perforation. The main indications are abdominal sepsis, worsening abdominal pain, signs of diffuse peritonitis, complete bowel obstruction, bowel ischemia. In esophageal perforation, surgical options include primary repair, repair over a drain. Primary repair is the best procedure for thoracic esophageal rupture. It is performed when the closure can heal. Endoscopically-placed-stents can be used to manage some patients with esophageal perforation. In perforated stomach, if the patient is unstable or deteriorating, urgent operation and closure with a piece of omentum is the standard of care. If the patient is stable or improving, nonoperative management with close monitoring is a reasonable option. If patients did not show clinical improvement after 24 hours, surgery was performed. In colonic resection, A one-stage colon resection for diverticulitis can be performed open or laparoscopically. The laparoscopic approach is preferred when feasible. A two-stage procedure is primarily used for patients with Hinchey III or IV diverticulitis, and for those with Hinchey I or II diverticulitis who have excessive contamination or inflammation of the surrounding tissues or other risk factors for anastomotic leakage. In perforated appendix, stable patients with perforated appendicitis who have symptoms localized to the right lower quadrant can be treated with immediate appendectomy or initial nonoperative management. Patients with an appendiceal abscess should be treated with intravenous antibiotics and percutaneous image-guided drainage. For patients who are septic or unstable, and for those who have a free perforation of the appendix or generalized peritonitis, emergency appendectomy is required.

Gastrointestinal perforation surgery

Indications for abdominal exploration

Many patients will require urgent surgical intervention. Following clinical signs are the main indications:

Esophageal perforation management

  • Open surgery is the mainstay of treatment.[1]
  • Surgical options include primary repair, repair over a drain.[2]
  • Primary repair is the best procedure for thoracic esophageal rupture. It is performed when the closure can heal.
  • Endoscopically-placed-stents can be used to manage some patients with esophageal perforation.
  • A laparotomy is the preferred approach to repair a perforation of an intra-abdominal esophagus.[3]
  • Complications associated with stents include bleeding, fistula, and injury to adjacent structures.
  • When there has been a delay in diagnosis greater than 24 hours, a vascularized pedicle flap can be used to overcome the lack of integrity in the mucosa.
  • The most common flap used is the intercostal muscle flap.[4]

Video shows endoscopically-placed-stent in esophageal perforation

{{#ev:youtube|i64GZVNeXUM}}

Gastric perforation management

  • A major decision when treating patients with ulcer perforation is whether and when to operate.[7]
  • If the patient is unstable or deteriorating, urgent operation and closure with a piece of omentum is the standard of care.
  • If the patient is stable or improving, nonoperative management with close monitoring is a reasonable option. If patients did not show clinical improvement after 24 hours, surgery was performed.[8]
  • Surgery is indicated in circumstances where the cause of an acute abdomen has not been established or the patient's status cannot be closely monitored.[9]
  • Factors associated with surgery include:
  • The size of the pneumoperitoneum
  • Abdominal distension
  • Heart rate >94 beats per minute
  • Pain on digital rectal examination
  • Age >59 years

Follow-up

  • Fifty percent of patients with perforated duodenal ulcers have sealed spontaneously when first examined.
  • Nonoperative management may also be considered for patients with delayed presentations.
  • Patients with perforated ulcers should have an upper endoscopy to look for evidence of malignancy.
  • It is important to obtain a biopsy of the ulcer margins in all patients with a gastric perforation to rule out gastric carcinoma.
  • If the procedure does not need to be done urgently, we prefer to wait six to eight weeks to allow for ulcer healing.

Video shows endoscopical surgery in gastric perforation

{{#ev:youtube|5XUu_LDi3xU}}

Small intestine perforation management

  • Treatment of small intestinal perforation is performed by closing the perforation in one or two layers.
  • A small bowel resection is performed in case:
  • Long-standing perforation
  • Indurated tissues

Appendix

  • The management of perforated appendicitis depends on the condition of the patient:[10]

Stable patients

  • Stable patients with perforated appendicitis who have symptoms localized to the right lower quadrant can be treated with immediate appendectomy or initial nonoperative management.
  • Patients with an appendiceal abscess should be treated with intravenous antibiotics and percutaneous image-guided drainage.
  • The complete 7- to 10-day course and return for follow-up in six to eight weeks is sufficient for theses patients.
  • Patients who fail initial conservative therapy require rescue appendectomy.

Unstable patients

Video shows endoscopic surgery in appendical perforation

{{#ev:youtube|E1ljClS0DhM}}

Colon and rectum perforation management

  •  Most cases of diverticulitis with perforation or small abscess can be treated nonoperatively with antibiotics with or without percutaneous drainage.
  • If the perforation is small, simple suture using a laparoscopic approach can be an ideal approach. Patients who deteriorate or fail to improve after three to five days of inpatient intravenous antibiotics may require urgent surgery.[11]
  • If the perforation is larger, colon resection will be necessary. Acute diverticulitis with free perforation is a life-threatening condition that mandates emergency surgery.[12]
  • Patients with a perforated colon due to neoplasm also require resection.[13]
  • A primary anastomosis is preferred if applicable.[14]
  • Since most patients with diverticulitis are treated medically, surgery is only indicated in medically refractory cases.

Colonic obstruction

  • Patients who present with colonic obstruction should undergo surgical resection of the involved colonic segment.
  • Surgery is required to rule out cancer and also to relieve symptoms of obstruction.
  • Endoluminal stenting may not be helpful for colonic obstruction caused by diverticulitis due to high rates of failure, perforation, or stent migration.
  • Diverticular abscess is treated with percutaneous image-guided drainage or with intravenous antibiotics. In case of failed conservative therapy, urgent surgery is indicated.
Fistula

Chronic smoldering diverticulitis

  • Patients with acute diverticulitis who initially respond to medical treatment but subsequently develop recurrent symptoms are described as having chronic smoldering diverticulitis.
  • If the symptoms persist for longer than six weeks, patients should be referred for surgical evaluation.

Asymptomatic but high-risk patients

Techniques

  • A one-stage colon resection for diverticulitis can be performed open or laparoscopically. The laparoscopic approach is preferred when feasible. Growing evidence suggests that laparoscopic surgery in this setting can be performed safely with superior short-term outcomes and comparable long-term outcomes.[15]
  • A two-stage procedure is primarily used for patients with Hinchey III or IV diverticulitis, and for those with Hinchey I or II diverticulitis who have excessive contamination or inflammation of the surrounding tissues or other risk factors for anastomotic leakage.[16]
  • Hartmann's procedure is the most commonly performed two-stage procedure and the preferred approach.
  • Hartmann's procedure involves resecting the diseased colonic segment, creating an end colostomy and a rectal stump, followed by a reversal of the colostomy three months later.
  • Colonic resection with primary anastomosis and protective ostomy.[17]

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Reconstruction 

The choice of reconstructive techniques largely depends upon the extent of peritoneal contamination as assessed by the Hinchey classification system:[18]

Stages Description
I Pericolic or mesenteric abscess
IIa Distant abscess amendable to percutaneous drainage
IIb Complex abscess associated with fistula
III Generalized purulent peritonitis
IV Fecal peritonitis

References

  1. Nesbitt JC, Sawyers JL (1987). "Surgical management of esophageal perforation". Am Surg. 53 (4): 183–91. PMID 3579023.
  2. Wu JT, Mattox KL, Wall MJ (2007). "Esophageal perforations: new perspectives and treatment paradigms". J Trauma. 63 (5): 1173–84. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e31805c0dd4. PMID 17993968.
  3. Schmitz RJ, Sharma P, Badr AS, Qamar MT, Weston AP (2001). "Incidence and management of esophageal stricture formation, ulcer bleeding, perforation, and massive hematoma formation from sclerotherapy versus band ligation". Am J Gastroenterol. 96 (2): 437–41. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03460.x. PMID 11232687.
  4. Isomoto H, Shikuwa S, Yamaguchi N, Fukuda E, Ikeda K, Nishiyama H; et al. (2009). "Endoscopic submucosal dissection for early gastric cancer: a large-scale feasibility study". Gut. 58 (3): 331–6. doi:10.1136/gut.2008.165381. PMID 19001058.
  5. Peirce GS, Swisher JP, Freemyer JD, Crossett JR, Wertin TM, Aluka KJ; et al. (2014). "Postoperative pneumoperitoneum on computed tomography: is the operation to blame?". Am J Surg. 208 (6): 949–53, discussion 953. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.09.006. PMID 25307607.
  6. Merrell RC (1995). "The abdomen as source of sepsis in critically ill patients". Crit Care Clin. 11 (2): 255–72. PMID 7788531.
  7. Bertleff MJ, Halm JA, Bemelman WA, van der Ham AC, van der Harst E, Oei HI; et al. (2009). "Randomized clinical trial of laparoscopic versus open repair of the perforated peptic ulcer: the LAMA Trial". World J Surg. 33 (7): 1368–73. doi:10.1007/s00268-009-0054-y. PMC 2691927. PMID 19430829.
  8. Wu Z, Freek D, Lange J (2014). "Do normal clinical signs and laboratory tests exclude anastomotic leakage?". J Am Coll Surg. 219 (1): 164. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2014.03.044. PMID 24952453.
  9. Ghahremani GG (1993). "Radiologic evaluation of suspected gastrointestinal perforations". Radiol Clin North Am. 31 (6): 1219–34. PMID 8210347.
  10. Nakashima H, Karimine N, Asoh T, Ueo H, Kohnoe S, Mori M (2006). "Risk factors of abdominal surgery in patients with collagen diseases". Am Surg. 72 (9): 843–8. PMID 16986398.
  11. Albuquerque W, Moreira E, Arantes V, Bittencourt P, Queiroz F (2008). "Endoscopic repair of a large colonoscopic perforation with clips". Surg Endosc. 22 (9): 2072–4. doi:10.1007/s00464-008-9782-6. PMID 18594917.
  12. Abdelrazeq AS, Scott N, Thorn C, Verbeke CS, Ambrose NS, Botterill ID; et al. (2008). "The impact of spontaneous tumour perforation on outcome following colon cancer surgery". Colorectal Dis. 10 (8): 775–80. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1318.2007.01412.x. PMID 18266887.
  13. Curran TJ, Borzotta AP (1999). "Complications of primary repair of colon injury: literature review of 2,964 cases". Am J Surg. 177 (1): 42–7. PMID 10037307.
  14. Wong WD, Wexner SD, Lowry A, Vernava A, Burnstein M, Denstman F; et al. (2000). "Practice parameters for the treatment of sigmoid diverticulitis--supporting documentation. The Standards Task Force. The American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons". Dis Colon Rectum. 43 (3): 290–7. PMID 10733108.
  15. Feigel A, Sylla P (2016). "Role of Minimally Invasive Surgery in the Reoperative Abdomen or Pelvis". Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 29 (2): 168–180. doi:10.1055/s-0036-1580637. PMC 5477556. PMID 28642675.
  16. Abbass MA, Tsay AT, Abbas MA (2013). "Laparoscopic resection of chronic sigmoid diverticulitis with fistula". JSLS. 17 (4): 636–40. doi:10.4293/108680813X13693422520512. PMC 3866070. PMID 24398208.
  17. Otani T, Isohata N, Kumamoto K, Endo S, Utano K, Nemoto D; et al. (2016). "An evidence-based medicine approach to the laparoscopic treatment of colorectal cancer". Fukushima J Med Sci. 62 (2): 74–82. doi:10.5387/fms.2016-4. PMC 5283946. PMID 27477991.
  18. Klarenbeek BR, de Korte N, van der Peet DL, Cuesta MA (2012). "Review of current classifications for diverticular disease and a translation into clinical practice". Int J Colorectal Dis. 27 (2): 207–14. doi:10.1007/s00384-011-1314-5. PMC 3267934. PMID 21928041.