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}}</ref> Subsequently, essential thrombocytosis was classified as a myeloproliferative disorder along with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), polycythemia vera (PV), and chronic idiopathic [[myelofibrosis]] (CIMF).<ref name="LevineGilliland2008">{{cite journal|last1=Levine|first1=R. L.|last2=Gilliland|first2=D. G.|title=Myeloproliferative disorders|journal=Blood|volume=112|issue=6|year=2008|pages=2190–2198|issn=0006-4971|doi=10.1182/blood-2008-03-077966}}</ref> The incidence of essential thrombocytosis is approximately 0.6-2.5 cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide annually.<ref name="pmid19636672">{{cite journal| author=Fabris F, Randi ML| title=Essential thrombocythemia: past and present. | journal=Intern Emerg Med | year= 2009 | volume= 4 | issue= 5 | pages= 381-8 | pmid=19636672 | doi=10.1007/s11739-009-0284-x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19636672 }} </ref> The prevalence of essential thrombocytosis is about 30 for every 100,000 people worldwide.<ref name=fm>Essential Thrombocythemia. Genetics Home Reference. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/essential-thrombocythemia. Accessed on October 29, 2015</ref> Females are more commonly affected with essential thrombocytosis than males.<ref name=gb>Essential Thrombocythemia (ET). MPN Research foundation. http://www.mpnresearchfoundation.org/Essential-Thrombocythemia Accessed on November 15, 2015.</ref> The female to male ratio is approximately 2 to 1.<ref name="pmid19636672">{{cite journal| author=Fabris F, Randi ML| title=Essential thrombocythemia: past and present. | journal=Intern Emerg Med | year= 2009 | volume= 4 | issue= 5 | pages= 381-8 | pmid=19636672 | doi=10.1007/s11739-009-0284-x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19636672 }} </ref> Symptoms of essential thrombocytosis include vision disturbances, transient loss of consciousness, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands or feet ([[erythromelalgia]]), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, persistent and painful erection of the penis ([[priapism]]).<ref name="pmid17210076">{{cite journal| author=Brière JB| title=Essential thrombocythemia. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2007 | volume= 2 | issue= | pages= 3 | pmid=17210076 | doi=10.1186/1750-1172-2-3 | pmc=PMC1781427 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17210076 }} </ref> The majority of cases of essential thrombocytosis only require supportive care. Pharmacologic medical therapies for essential thrombocytosis include [[aspirin]] therapy for | }}</ref> Subsequently, essential thrombocytosis was classified as a myeloproliferative disorder along with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), polycythemia vera (PV), and chronic idiopathic [[myelofibrosis]] (CIMF).<ref name="LevineGilliland2008">{{cite journal|last1=Levine|first1=R. L.|last2=Gilliland|first2=D. G.|title=Myeloproliferative disorders|journal=Blood|volume=112|issue=6|year=2008|pages=2190–2198|issn=0006-4971|doi=10.1182/blood-2008-03-077966}}</ref> The incidence of essential thrombocytosis is approximately 0.6-2.5 cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide annually.<ref name="pmid19636672">{{cite journal| author=Fabris F, Randi ML| title=Essential thrombocythemia: past and present. | journal=Intern Emerg Med | year= 2009 | volume= 4 | issue= 5 | pages= 381-8 | pmid=19636672 | doi=10.1007/s11739-009-0284-x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19636672 }} </ref> The prevalence of essential thrombocytosis is about 30 for every 100,000 people worldwide.<ref name=fm>Essential Thrombocythemia. Genetics Home Reference. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/essential-thrombocythemia. Accessed on October 29, 2015</ref> Females are more commonly affected with essential thrombocytosis than males.<ref name=gb>Essential Thrombocythemia (ET). MPN Research foundation. http://www.mpnresearchfoundation.org/Essential-Thrombocythemia Accessed on November 15, 2015.</ref> The female to male ratio is approximately 2 to 1.<ref name="pmid19636672">{{cite journal| author=Fabris F, Randi ML| title=Essential thrombocythemia: past and present. | journal=Intern Emerg Med | year= 2009 | volume= 4 | issue= 5 | pages= 381-8 | pmid=19636672 | doi=10.1007/s11739-009-0284-x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19636672 }} </ref> Symptoms of essential thrombocytosis include vision disturbances, transient loss of consciousness, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands or feet ([[erythromelalgia]]), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, persistent and painful erection of the penis ([[priapism]]).<ref name="pmid17210076">{{cite journal| author=Brière JB| title=Essential thrombocythemia. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2007 | volume= 2 | issue= | pages= 3 | pmid=17210076 | doi=10.1186/1750-1172-2-3 | pmc=PMC1781427 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17210076 }} </ref> Bone marrow biopsy may be helpful in the diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis, in addition to ruling out other secondary causes of thrombocytosis.<ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> The majority of cases of essential thrombocytosis only require supportive care. Pharmacologic medical therapies for essential thrombocytosis include [[aspirin]] therapy for low risk patients and platelet lowering drugs such as ([[hydroxyurea]], [[interferon-α]], and [[anagrelide]]) for high risk patients. | ||
==Historical | ==Historical Perspective== | ||
Essential thrombocytosis was first defined by Emil Epstein and Alfred Goedel, two Austrian pathologists, in the year 1934 and was initially called [[hemorrhagic thrombocythemia]].<ref name=tt>{{Cite journal | Essential thrombocytosis was first defined by Emil Epstein and Alfred Goedel, two Austrian pathologists, in the year 1934 and was initially called [[hemorrhagic thrombocythemia]].<ref name=tt>{{Cite journal | ||
| author = [[Steven Sanchez]] & [[April Ewton]] | | author = [[Steven Sanchez]] & [[April Ewton]] | ||
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==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
There is no classification system established for essential thrombocytosis. However, | There is no classification system established for essential thrombocytosis. However, essential thrombocytosis may be broadly classified into sporadic and familial forms.<ref name="TrifaCucuianu2014">{{cite journal|last1=Trifa|first1=Adrian P.|last2=Cucuianu|first2=Andrei|last3=Popp|first3=Radu A.|title=Familial Essential Thrombocythemia Associated withMPLW515L Mutation in Father andJAK2V617F Mutation in Daughter|journal=Case Reports in Hematology|volume=2014|year=2014|pages=1–3|issn=2090-6560|doi=10.1155/2014/841787}}</ref> | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
Essential thrombocytosis arises from hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to [[megakaryocytes]] which give rise to [[platelets]] ([[thrombocytes]]), that are normally involved in blood clotting. Development of essential thrombocytosis is the result of a genetic mutation in the [[janus kinase]] 2 (''[[JAK2]]'') gene in 50% of the patients. Other genes that may be involved in the pathogenesis of essential thrombocytosis are ''CALR'', ''MPL'', and ''THPO'' genes.<ref>Essential thrombocythemia. Genetics Home Reference. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/essential-thrombocythemia Accessed on November 16, 2015.</ref> On microscopic histopathological analysis, thrombocytosis | Essential thrombocytosis arises from hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to [[megakaryocytes]] which give rise to [[platelets]] ([[thrombocytes]]), that are normally involved in blood clotting. Development of essential thrombocytosis is the result of a genetic mutation in the [[janus kinase]] 2 (''[[JAK2]]'') gene in 50% of the patients. Other genes that may be involved in the pathogenesis of essential thrombocytosis are ''CALR'', ''MPL'', and ''THPO'' genes.<ref>Essential thrombocythemia. Genetics Home Reference. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/essential-thrombocythemia Accessed on November 16, 2015.</ref> On microscopic histopathological analysis, thrombocytosis and bone marrow hyperplasia with hyperlobated megakaryotic nuclei evident of thrombopoiesis are characteristic findings of essential thrombocytosis. | ||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ||
The incidence of essential thrombocytosis is approximately 0.6-2.5 cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide annually.<ref name="pmid19636672">{{cite journal| author=Fabris F, Randi ML| title=Essential thrombocythemia: past and present. | journal=Intern Emerg Med | year= 2009 | volume= 4 | issue= 5 | pages= 381-8 | pmid=19636672 | doi=10.1007/s11739-009-0284-x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19636672 }} </ref> The prevalence of essential thrombocytosis is | The incidence of essential thrombocytosis is approximately 0.6-2.5 cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide annually.<ref name="pmid19636672">{{cite journal| author=Fabris F, Randi ML| title=Essential thrombocythemia: past and present. | journal=Intern Emerg Med | year= 2009 | volume= 4 | issue= 5 | pages= 381-8 | pmid=19636672 | doi=10.1007/s11739-009-0284-x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19636672 }} </ref> The prevalence of essential thrombocytosis is approximately 30 per 100,000 individuals worldwide.<ref name=fm>Essential Thrombocythemia. Genetics Home Reference. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/essential-thrombocythemia. Accessed on October 29, 2015</ref> The incidence of essential thrombocytosis increases with age; the median age at diagnosis is 65-70 years. Patients of all age groups may develop essential thrombocytosis. However, essential thrombocytosis commonly affects individuals older than 60 years of age.<ref name=gb>Essential Thrombocythemia (ET). MPN Research foundation. http://www.mpnresearchfoundation.org/Essential-Thrombocythemia Accessed on November 15, 2015.</ref> Females are more commonly affected with essential thrombocytosis than males.<ref name=gb>Essential Thrombocythemia (ET). MPN Research foundation. http://www.mpnresearchfoundation.org/Essential-Thrombocythemia Accessed on November 15, 2015.</ref> The female to male ratio is approximately 2 to 1.<ref name="pmid19636672">{{cite journal| author=Fabris F, Randi ML| title=Essential thrombocythemia: past and present. | journal=Intern Emerg Med | year= 2009 | volume= 4 | issue= 5 | pages= 381-8 | pmid=19636672 | doi=10.1007/s11739-009-0284-x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19636672 }} </ref> | ||
==Risk | ==Risk Factors== | ||
Common risk | Common risk factor in the development of essential thrombocytosis is female sex.<ref name="pmid21106990">{{cite journal| author=Beer PA, Erber WN, Campbell PJ, Green AR| title=How I treat essential thrombocythemia. | journal=Blood | year= 2011 | volume= 117 | issue= 5 | pages= 1472-82 | pmid=21106990 | doi=10.1182/blood-2010-08-270033 | pmc=PMC3145107 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21106990 }} </ref> Common risk factors in the development of thrombotic complications in patients with essential thrombocytosis are previous history of thrombotic events and age greater than 60 years.<ref name="pmid21106990">{{cite journal| author=Beer PA, Erber WN, Campbell PJ, Green AR| title=How I treat essential thrombocythemia. | journal=Blood | year= 2011 | volume= 117 | issue= 5 | pages= 1472-82 | pmid=21106990 | doi=10.1182/blood-2010-08-270033 | pmc=PMC3145107 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21106990 }} </ref> | ||
==Screening== | ==Screening== | ||
Screening for essential thrombocytosis by cell-based quantitative assays for ''[[JAK2|JAK2V617F]]'' mutation is recommended among patients with [[thrombocytosis]], [[erythrocytosis]], and [[monocytosis]].<ref name="The Asco Post">The Asco Post. JAK2 and MPL Mutation Screening: What Are the Indications and How to Interpret the Results. http://www.ascopost.com/issues/february-15-2012/jak2-and-mpl-mutation-screening-what-are-the-indications-and-how-to-interpret-the-results.aspx</ref><ref name="pmid21723416">{{cite journal| author=Tefferi A, Noel P, Hanson CA| title=Uses and abuses of JAK2 and MPL mutation tests in myeloproliferative neoplasms a paper from the 2010 William Beaumont hospital symposium on molecular pathology. | journal=J Mol Diagn | year= 2011 | volume= 13 | issue= 5 | pages= 461-6 | pmid=21723416 | doi=10.1016/j.jmoldx.2011.05.007 | pmc=PMC3157620 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21723416 }} </ref> | Screening for essential thrombocytosis by cell-based quantitative assays for ''[[JAK2|JAK2V617F]]'' mutation is recommended among individuals with a positive family history for the disease (autosomal dominant inheritance) and in patients who present with [[thrombocytosis]], [[erythrocytosis]], and [[monocytosis]].<ref name="The Asco Post">The Asco Post. JAK2 and MPL Mutation Screening: What Are the Indications and How to Interpret the Results. http://www.ascopost.com/issues/february-15-2012/jak2-and-mpl-mutation-screening-what-are-the-indications-and-how-to-interpret-the-results.aspx</ref><ref name="pmid21723416">{{cite journal| author=Tefferi A, Noel P, Hanson CA| title=Uses and abuses of JAK2 and MPL mutation tests in myeloproliferative neoplasms a paper from the 2010 William Beaumont hospital symposium on molecular pathology. | journal=J Mol Diagn | year= 2011 | volume= 13 | issue= 5 | pages= 461-6 | pmid=21723416 | doi=10.1016/j.jmoldx.2011.05.007 | pmc=PMC3157620 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21723416 }} </ref> | ||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
Essential thrombocytosis may be caused by a mutation in the [[janus kinase]] 2 (''[[JAK2]]'') gene (in 50% of the patients), ''CALR'', ''MPL'', or ''THPO'' genes. | |||
==Differential | ==Differential Diagnosis== | ||
Essential thrombocytosis must be differentiated from other causes of thrombocytosis, such as chronic myelogenous leukemia ([[CML]]), [[myelodysplastic syndrome]], [[polycythemia vera]], [[primary myelofibrosis]], [[secondary thrombocytosis]].<ref name=dd>Essential Thrombocytosis Differential Diagnoses. Medscape. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/206697-differential Accessed on November 12, 2015.</ref> | Essential thrombocytosis must be differentiated from other causes of thrombocytosis, such as chronic myelogenous leukemia ([[CML]]), [[myelodysplastic syndrome]], [[polycythemia vera]], [[primary myelofibrosis]], [[secondary thrombocytosis]].<ref name=dd>Essential Thrombocytosis Differential Diagnoses. Medscape. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/206697-differential Accessed on November 12, 2015.</ref> | ||
==Natural | ==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ||
If left untreated, patients with essential thrombocytosis may progress to develop symptoms like headache, dizziness, vision disturbances, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands and/or feet ([[erythromelalgia]]), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, [[priapism]] (persistent and painful erection of the penis) and so on depending on the vessel occluded with the thrombus. Common complications of essential thrombocytosis include thrombotic events ([[DVT]], cerebrovascular accidents,etc), bleeding (bruises, gum bleeds, [[epistaxis]], etc), [[acute leukemia]] and [[myelofibrosis]].<ref name = paed>{{cite journal|last=Frewin|first=R|coauthors=Dowson, A|title=Headache in essential thrombocythaemia.|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|date=October 2012|volume=66|issue=10|pages=976-83|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2012.02986.x|pmid=22889110|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3469735/pdf/ijcp0066-0976.pdf|format=PDF|pmc=3469735}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Tefferi|first=A|title=Annual Clinical Updates in Hematological Malignancies: a continuing medical education series: polycythemia vera and essential thrombocythemia: 2011 update on diagnosis, risk-stratification, and management.|journal=American Journal of Hematology|date=March 2011|volume=86|issue=3|pages=292-301|doi=10.1002/ajh.21946|pmid=21351120}}</ref> Prognosis is generally good, and the survival rate of patients is usually normal with regular medical supervision. However, the disease may rarely undergo a leukemic conversion or develop [[myelofibrosis]]. | If left untreated, patients with essential thrombocytosis may progress to develop symptoms like headache, dizziness, vision disturbances, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands and/or feet ([[erythromelalgia]]), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, [[priapism]] (persistent and painful erection of the penis) and so on depending on the vessel occluded with the thrombus. Common complications of essential thrombocytosis include thrombotic events ([[DVT]], cerebrovascular accidents,etc), bleeding (bruises, gum bleeds, [[epistaxis]], etc), [[acute leukemia]] and [[myelofibrosis]].<ref name = paed>{{cite journal|last=Frewin|first=R|coauthors=Dowson, A|title=Headache in essential thrombocythaemia.|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|date=October 2012|volume=66|issue=10|pages=976-83|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2012.02986.x|pmid=22889110|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3469735/pdf/ijcp0066-0976.pdf|format=PDF|pmc=3469735}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Tefferi|first=A|title=Annual Clinical Updates in Hematological Malignancies: a continuing medical education series: polycythemia vera and essential thrombocythemia: 2011 update on diagnosis, risk-stratification, and management.|journal=American Journal of Hematology|date=March 2011|volume=86|issue=3|pages=292-301|doi=10.1002/ajh.21946|pmid=21351120}}</ref> Prognosis is generally good, and the survival rate of patients is usually normal with regular medical supervision. However, the disease may rarely undergo a leukemic conversion or develop [[myelofibrosis]]. | ||
==Diagnosis== | ==Diagnosis== | ||
===Diagnostic | ===Diagnostic Criteria=== | ||
The diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis is made when all four of the following diagnostic criteria are met:<ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | The diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis is made when all four of the following diagnostic criteria are met:<ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | ||
*Sustained elevation of platelet counts > 450,000,000 × 10³/L, {{and}} | *Sustained elevation of platelet counts > 450,000,000 × 10³/L, {{and}} | ||
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*Demonstration of ''JAK2 617VF'' or other clonal marker, or in the absence of a clonal marker, no evidence for reactive thrombocytosis | *Demonstration of ''JAK2 617VF'' or other clonal marker, or in the absence of a clonal marker, no evidence for reactive thrombocytosis | ||
===History and | ===History and Symptoms=== | ||
People with essential thrombocytosis are usually asymptomatic. Symptoms<ref name="pmid17210076">{{cite journal| author=Brière JB| title=Essential thrombocythemia. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2007 | volume= 2 | issue= | pages= 3 | pmid=17210076 | doi=10.1186/1750-1172-2-3 | pmc=PMC1781427 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17210076 }} </ref> of essential thrombocytosis include vision disturbances, transient loss of consciousness, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands or feet ([[erythromelalgia]]), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, persistent and painful erection of the penis ([[priapism]]). Neurologic symptoms like headache may occur but the pathophysiology is not completely understood.<ref name="pmid17210076">{{cite journal| author=Brière JB| title=Essential thrombocythemia. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2007 | volume= 2 | issue= | pages= 3 | pmid=17210076 | doi=10.1186/1750-1172-2-3 | pmc=PMC1781427 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17210076 }} </ref> A positive family history of may be present in those with familial essential thrombocytosis. | People with essential thrombocytosis are usually asymptomatic. Symptoms<ref name="pmid17210076">{{cite journal| author=Brière JB| title=Essential thrombocythemia. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2007 | volume= 2 | issue= | pages= 3 | pmid=17210076 | doi=10.1186/1750-1172-2-3 | pmc=PMC1781427 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17210076 }} </ref> of essential thrombocytosis include vision disturbances, transient loss of consciousness, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands or feet ([[erythromelalgia]]), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, persistent and painful erection of the penis ([[priapism]]). Neurologic symptoms like headache may occur but the pathophysiology is not completely understood.<ref name="pmid17210076">{{cite journal| author=Brière JB| title=Essential thrombocythemia. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2007 | volume= 2 | issue= | pages= 3 | pmid=17210076 | doi=10.1186/1750-1172-2-3 | pmc=PMC1781427 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17210076 }} </ref> A positive family history of may be present in those with familial essential thrombocytosis. | ||
===Laboratory | ===Laboratory Findings=== | ||
Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis include abnormal [[complete blood count]] ([[CBC]]), elevated platelet count, peripheral blood smear showing large platelets, megakaryocyte fragments and platelet aggregates, presence of ''[[JAK2]]'' mutation and absence of ''BCR-ABL'' or [[Philadelphia chromosome]].<ref name=re>Essential Thrombocythemia. Merck manual. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/myeloproliferative-disorders/essential-thrombocythemia. Accessed on November 11,2015.</ref> [[Leukocytosis]], [[erythrocytosis]], and mild [[anemia]] may be present. Bone marrow biopsy is an important test and needed to make a diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis as per WHO definition.<ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis include abnormal [[complete blood count]] ([[CBC]]), elevated platelet count, peripheral blood smear showing large platelets, megakaryocyte fragments and platelet aggregates, presence of ''[[JAK2]]'' mutation and absence of ''BCR-ABL'' or [[Philadelphia chromosome]].<ref name=re>Essential Thrombocythemia. Merck manual. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/myeloproliferative-disorders/essential-thrombocythemia. Accessed on November 11,2015.</ref> [[Leukocytosis]], [[erythrocytosis]], and mild [[anemia]] may be present. Bone marrow biopsy is an important test and needed to make a diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis as per WHO definition.<ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | ||
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There are no [[EKG]] findings associated with essential thrombocytosis. However, EKG should always be ordered in essential thrombocytosis patients who present with chest pain to rule out other dangerous causes of chest pain like [[myocardial infarction]] (MI). | There are no [[EKG]] findings associated with essential thrombocytosis. However, EKG should always be ordered in essential thrombocytosis patients who present with chest pain to rule out other dangerous causes of chest pain like [[myocardial infarction]] (MI). | ||
===Chest X | ===Chest X Ray=== | ||
A chest x-ray is not diagnostic of essential thrombocytosis. However, a chest x-ray may be a helpful test in the management of complications that develop due to essential thrombocytosis, such as pulmonary [[thromboembolism]].<ref name="ArampatzisStefanidis2010">{{cite journal|last1=Arampatzis|first1=Spyridon|last2=Stefanidis|first2=Ioannis|last3=Lakiopoulos|first3=Vassilios|last4=Raio|first4=Luigi|last5=Surbek|first5=Daniel|last6=Mohaupt|first6=Markus G|title=Postpartal recurrent non-ST elevation myocardial infarction in essential thrombocythaemia: case report and review of the literature|journal=Thrombosis Journal|volume=8|issue=1|year=2010|pages=12|issn=1477-9560|doi=10.1186/1477-9560-8-12}}</ref> | A chest x-ray is not diagnostic of essential thrombocytosis. However, a chest x-ray may be a helpful test in the management of complications that develop due to essential thrombocytosis, such as pulmonary [[thromboembolism]].<ref name="ArampatzisStefanidis2010">{{cite journal|last1=Arampatzis|first1=Spyridon|last2=Stefanidis|first2=Ioannis|last3=Lakiopoulos|first3=Vassilios|last4=Raio|first4=Luigi|last5=Surbek|first5=Daniel|last6=Mohaupt|first6=Markus G|title=Postpartal recurrent non-ST elevation myocardial infarction in essential thrombocythaemia: case report and review of the literature|journal=Thrombosis Journal|volume=8|issue=1|year=2010|pages=12|issn=1477-9560|doi=10.1186/1477-9560-8-12}}</ref> | ||
===CT=== | ===CT Scan=== | ||
CT scan is not diagnostic of essential thrombocytosis. Findings on abdominal CT suggestive of essential thrombocytosis include [[splenomegaly]]. A spiral chest CT may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications from essential thrombocytosis like [[pulmonary thromboembolism]] in patients with suggestive symptoms.<ref name="ArampatzisStefanidis2010">{{cite journal|last1=Arampatzis|first1=Spyridon|last2=Stefanidis|first2=Ioannis|last3=Lakiopoulos|first3=Vassilios|last4=Raio|first4=Luigi|last5=Surbek|first5=Daniel|last6=Mohaupt|first6=Markus G|title=Postpartal recurrent non-ST elevation myocardial infarction in essential thrombocythaemia: case report and review of the literature|journal=Thrombosis Journal|volume=8|issue=1|year=2010|pages=12|issn=1477-9560|doi=10.1186/1477-9560-8-12}}</ref> | CT scan is not diagnostic of essential thrombocytosis. Findings on abdominal CT suggestive of essential thrombocytosis include [[splenomegaly]]. A spiral chest CT may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications from essential thrombocytosis like [[pulmonary thromboembolism]] in patients with suggestive symptoms.<ref name="ArampatzisStefanidis2010">{{cite journal|last1=Arampatzis|first1=Spyridon|last2=Stefanidis|first2=Ioannis|last3=Lakiopoulos|first3=Vassilios|last4=Raio|first4=Luigi|last5=Surbek|first5=Daniel|last6=Mohaupt|first6=Markus G|title=Postpartal recurrent non-ST elevation myocardial infarction in essential thrombocythaemia: case report and review of the literature|journal=Thrombosis Journal|volume=8|issue=1|year=2010|pages=12|issn=1477-9560|doi=10.1186/1477-9560-8-12}}</ref> | ||
===MRI | ===MRI=== | ||
There are no MRI findings associated with essential thrombocytosis. | There are no MRI findings associated with essential thrombocytosis. | ||
| Line 85: | Line 84: | ||
Abdominal ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of Essential thrombocytosis. Findings on abdominal ultrasound suggestive of essential thrombocytosis include [[Splenomegaly]].<ref>How I treat symptomatic splenomegaly in patients with myelofibrosis. Blood journal. http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/113/22/5394?sso-checked=true Accessed on November 17, 2015.</ref> There are no electrocardiogram findings associated with essential thrombocytosis. | Abdominal ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of Essential thrombocytosis. Findings on abdominal ultrasound suggestive of essential thrombocytosis include [[Splenomegaly]].<ref>How I treat symptomatic splenomegaly in patients with myelofibrosis. Blood journal. http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/113/22/5394?sso-checked=true Accessed on November 17, 2015.</ref> There are no electrocardiogram findings associated with essential thrombocytosis. | ||
===Other | ===Other Imaging Findings=== | ||
There are no other imaging studies associated with essential thrombocytosis. | There are no other imaging studies associated with essential thrombocytosis. | ||
===Bone | ===Bone Marrow Biopsy Findings=== | ||
Bone marrow biopsy is an important test and needed to make a diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis<ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> as per [[WHO]] definition. The bone marrow biopsy shows hypercellularity with clusters of megakaryocytes that stain positive for iron. There may be increased reticulin but no [[collagen]] fibrosis. | Bone marrow biopsy is an important test and needed to make a diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis<ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> as per [[WHO]] definition. The bone marrow biopsy shows hypercellularity with clusters of megakaryocytes that stain positive for iron. There may be increased reticulin but no [[collagen]] fibrosis. | ||
==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
===Medical | ===Medical Therapy=== | ||
The majority of cases of essential thrombocytosis only require supportive care. Pharmacologic medical therapies for essential thrombocytosis include aspirin therapy for patients at low risk and platelet lowering drugs ([[Hydroxyurea]], [[interferon-α]] and [[anagrelide]]) for patients at high risk for thrombosis. | The majority of cases of essential thrombocytosis only require supportive care. Pharmacologic medical therapies for essential thrombocytosis include aspirin therapy for patients at low risk and platelet lowering drugs ([[Hydroxyurea]], [[interferon-α]] and [[anagrelide]]) for patients at high risk for thrombosis. | ||
| Line 98: | Line 97: | ||
Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of essential thrombocytosis. | Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of essential thrombocytosis. | ||
===Primary | ===Primary Prevention=== | ||
There is no established method for primary prevention of Essential thrombocytosis. | There is no established method for primary prevention of Essential thrombocytosis. | ||
===Secondary | ===Secondary Prevention=== | ||
Secondary prevention strategy following essential thrombocytosis include low dose [[aspirin]] therapy. | Secondary prevention strategy following essential thrombocytosis include low dose [[aspirin]] therapy. | ||
Latest revision as of 02:56, 28 December 2015
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Essential thrombocytosis Microchapters |
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Differentiating Essential thrombocytosis from other Diseases |
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Diagnosis |
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Treatment |
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Essential thrombocytosis overview On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Essential thrombocytosis overview |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for Essential thrombocytosis overview |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Soujanya Thummathati, MBBS [2]
Overview
Essential thrombocytosis (ET) or primary thrombocytosis is a rare hematologic disorder which arises from hematopoietic stem cells that give rise to megakaryocytes which in turn produce platelets (thrombocytes), that are normally involved in blood clotting. Essential thrombocytosis is characterized by overproduction of platelets in the absence of an underlying disease. Essential thrombocytosis was first defined by Emil Epstein and Alfred Goedel, two Austrian pathologists, in the year 1934 and was initially called hemorrhagic thrombocythemia.[1] Subsequently, essential thrombocytosis was classified as a myeloproliferative disorder along with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), polycythemia vera (PV), and chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis (CIMF).[2] The incidence of essential thrombocytosis is approximately 0.6-2.5 cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide annually.[3] The prevalence of essential thrombocytosis is about 30 for every 100,000 people worldwide.[4] Females are more commonly affected with essential thrombocytosis than males.[5] The female to male ratio is approximately 2 to 1.[3] Symptoms of essential thrombocytosis include vision disturbances, transient loss of consciousness, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands or feet (erythromelalgia), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, persistent and painful erection of the penis (priapism).[6] Bone marrow biopsy may be helpful in the diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis, in addition to ruling out other secondary causes of thrombocytosis.[7] The majority of cases of essential thrombocytosis only require supportive care. Pharmacologic medical therapies for essential thrombocytosis include aspirin therapy for low risk patients and platelet lowering drugs such as (hydroxyurea, interferon-α, and anagrelide) for high risk patients.
Historical Perspective
Essential thrombocytosis was first defined by Emil Epstein and Alfred Goedel, two Austrian pathologists, in the year 1934 and was initially called hemorrhagic thrombocythemia.[1]
Classification
There is no classification system established for essential thrombocytosis. However, essential thrombocytosis may be broadly classified into sporadic and familial forms.[8]
Pathophysiology
Essential thrombocytosis arises from hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to megakaryocytes which give rise to platelets (thrombocytes), that are normally involved in blood clotting. Development of essential thrombocytosis is the result of a genetic mutation in the janus kinase 2 (JAK2) gene in 50% of the patients. Other genes that may be involved in the pathogenesis of essential thrombocytosis are CALR, MPL, and THPO genes.[9] On microscopic histopathological analysis, thrombocytosis and bone marrow hyperplasia with hyperlobated megakaryotic nuclei evident of thrombopoiesis are characteristic findings of essential thrombocytosis.
Epidemiology and Demographics
The incidence of essential thrombocytosis is approximately 0.6-2.5 cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide annually.[3] The prevalence of essential thrombocytosis is approximately 30 per 100,000 individuals worldwide.[4] The incidence of essential thrombocytosis increases with age; the median age at diagnosis is 65-70 years. Patients of all age groups may develop essential thrombocytosis. However, essential thrombocytosis commonly affects individuals older than 60 years of age.[5] Females are more commonly affected with essential thrombocytosis than males.[5] The female to male ratio is approximately 2 to 1.[3]
Risk Factors
Common risk factor in the development of essential thrombocytosis is female sex.[10] Common risk factors in the development of thrombotic complications in patients with essential thrombocytosis are previous history of thrombotic events and age greater than 60 years.[10]
Screening
Screening for essential thrombocytosis by cell-based quantitative assays for JAK2V617F mutation is recommended among individuals with a positive family history for the disease (autosomal dominant inheritance) and in patients who present with thrombocytosis, erythrocytosis, and monocytosis.[11][12]
Causes
Essential thrombocytosis may be caused by a mutation in the janus kinase 2 (JAK2) gene (in 50% of the patients), CALR, MPL, or THPO genes.
Differential Diagnosis
Essential thrombocytosis must be differentiated from other causes of thrombocytosis, such as chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), myelodysplastic syndrome, polycythemia vera, primary myelofibrosis, secondary thrombocytosis.[13]
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
If left untreated, patients with essential thrombocytosis may progress to develop symptoms like headache, dizziness, vision disturbances, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands and/or feet (erythromelalgia), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, priapism (persistent and painful erection of the penis) and so on depending on the vessel occluded with the thrombus. Common complications of essential thrombocytosis include thrombotic events (DVT, cerebrovascular accidents,etc), bleeding (bruises, gum bleeds, epistaxis, etc), acute leukemia and myelofibrosis.[14][15] Prognosis is generally good, and the survival rate of patients is usually normal with regular medical supervision. However, the disease may rarely undergo a leukemic conversion or develop myelofibrosis.
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Criteria
The diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis is made when all four of the following diagnostic criteria are met:[7]
- Sustained elevation of platelet counts > 450,000,000 × 10³/L, AND
- Bone marrow biopsy specimen showing proliferation, mainly of the megakaryocytic lineage with increased numbers of enlarged, mature megakaryocytes and no significant increase or left-shift of neutrophil granulopoiesis or erythropoiesis, AND
- Not meeting WHO criteria for polycythemia vera (PV), PMF, CML, MDS, or other myeloid neoplasm, AND
- Demonstration of JAK2 617VF or other clonal marker, or in the absence of a clonal marker, no evidence for reactive thrombocytosis
History and Symptoms
People with essential thrombocytosis are usually asymptomatic. Symptoms[6] of essential thrombocytosis include vision disturbances, transient loss of consciousness, chest pain, intense burning pain in hands or feet (erythromelalgia), numbness and tingling of hands and feet, persistent and painful erection of the penis (priapism). Neurologic symptoms like headache may occur but the pathophysiology is not completely understood.[6] A positive family history of may be present in those with familial essential thrombocytosis.
Laboratory Findings
Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis include abnormal complete blood count (CBC), elevated platelet count, peripheral blood smear showing large platelets, megakaryocyte fragments and platelet aggregates, presence of JAK2 mutation and absence of BCR-ABL or Philadelphia chromosome.[16] Leukocytosis, erythrocytosis, and mild anemia may be present. Bone marrow biopsy is an important test and needed to make a diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis as per WHO definition.[7]
Electrocardiogram
There are no EKG findings associated with essential thrombocytosis. However, EKG should always be ordered in essential thrombocytosis patients who present with chest pain to rule out other dangerous causes of chest pain like myocardial infarction (MI).
Chest X Ray
A chest x-ray is not diagnostic of essential thrombocytosis. However, a chest x-ray may be a helpful test in the management of complications that develop due to essential thrombocytosis, such as pulmonary thromboembolism.[17]
CT Scan
CT scan is not diagnostic of essential thrombocytosis. Findings on abdominal CT suggestive of essential thrombocytosis include splenomegaly. A spiral chest CT may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications from essential thrombocytosis like pulmonary thromboembolism in patients with suggestive symptoms.[17]
MRI
There are no MRI findings associated with essential thrombocytosis.
Ultrasound
Abdominal ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of Essential thrombocytosis. Findings on abdominal ultrasound suggestive of essential thrombocytosis include Splenomegaly.[18] There are no electrocardiogram findings associated with essential thrombocytosis.
Other Imaging Findings
There are no other imaging studies associated with essential thrombocytosis.
Bone Marrow Biopsy Findings
Bone marrow biopsy is an important test and needed to make a diagnosis of essential thrombocytosis[7] as per WHO definition. The bone marrow biopsy shows hypercellularity with clusters of megakaryocytes that stain positive for iron. There may be increased reticulin but no collagen fibrosis.
Treatment
Medical Therapy
The majority of cases of essential thrombocytosis only require supportive care. Pharmacologic medical therapies for essential thrombocytosis include aspirin therapy for patients at low risk and platelet lowering drugs (Hydroxyurea, interferon-α and anagrelide) for patients at high risk for thrombosis.
Surgery
Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of essential thrombocytosis.
Primary Prevention
There is no established method for primary prevention of Essential thrombocytosis.
Secondary Prevention
Secondary prevention strategy following essential thrombocytosis include low dose aspirin therapy.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Steven Sanchez & April Ewton (2006). "Essential thrombocythemia: a review of diagnostic and pathologic features". Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine. 130 (8): 1144–1150. PMID 16879015. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Levine, R. L.; Gilliland, D. G. (2008). "Myeloproliferative disorders". Blood. 112 (6): 2190–2198. doi:10.1182/blood-2008-03-077966. ISSN 0006-4971.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Fabris F, Randi ML (2009). "Essential thrombocythemia: past and present". Intern Emerg Med. 4 (5): 381–8. doi:10.1007/s11739-009-0284-x. PMID 19636672.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Essential Thrombocythemia. Genetics Home Reference. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/essential-thrombocythemia. Accessed on October 29, 2015
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Essential Thrombocythemia (ET). MPN Research foundation. http://www.mpnresearchfoundation.org/Essential-Thrombocythemia Accessed on November 15, 2015.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Brière JB (2007). "Essential thrombocythemia". Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2: 3. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-2-3. PMC 1781427. PMID 17210076.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975). "Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes". Biochem Pharmacol. 24 (17): 1639–41. PMID http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-04-083501 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Trifa, Adrian P.; Cucuianu, Andrei; Popp, Radu A. (2014). "Familial Essential Thrombocythemia Associated withMPLW515L Mutation in Father andJAK2V617F Mutation in Daughter". Case Reports in Hematology. 2014: 1–3. doi:10.1155/2014/841787. ISSN 2090-6560.
- ↑ Essential thrombocythemia. Genetics Home Reference. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/essential-thrombocythemia Accessed on November 16, 2015.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Beer PA, Erber WN, Campbell PJ, Green AR (2011). "How I treat essential thrombocythemia". Blood. 117 (5): 1472–82. doi:10.1182/blood-2010-08-270033. PMC 3145107. PMID 21106990.
- ↑ The Asco Post. JAK2 and MPL Mutation Screening: What Are the Indications and How to Interpret the Results. http://www.ascopost.com/issues/february-15-2012/jak2-and-mpl-mutation-screening-what-are-the-indications-and-how-to-interpret-the-results.aspx
- ↑ Tefferi A, Noel P, Hanson CA (2011). "Uses and abuses of JAK2 and MPL mutation tests in myeloproliferative neoplasms a paper from the 2010 William Beaumont hospital symposium on molecular pathology". J Mol Diagn. 13 (5): 461–6. doi:10.1016/j.jmoldx.2011.05.007. PMC 3157620. PMID 21723416.
- ↑ Essential Thrombocytosis Differential Diagnoses. Medscape. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/206697-differential Accessed on November 12, 2015.
- ↑ Frewin, R (October 2012). "Headache in essential thrombocythaemia" (PDF). International Journal of Clinical Practice. 66 (10): 976–83. doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2012.02986.x. PMC 3469735. PMID 22889110. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Tefferi, A (March 2011). "Annual Clinical Updates in Hematological Malignancies: a continuing medical education series: polycythemia vera and essential thrombocythemia: 2011 update on diagnosis, risk-stratification, and management". American Journal of Hematology. 86 (3): 292–301. doi:10.1002/ajh.21946. PMID 21351120.
- ↑ Essential Thrombocythemia. Merck manual. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/myeloproliferative-disorders/essential-thrombocythemia. Accessed on November 11,2015.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Arampatzis, Spyridon; Stefanidis, Ioannis; Lakiopoulos, Vassilios; Raio, Luigi; Surbek, Daniel; Mohaupt, Markus G (2010). "Postpartal recurrent non-ST elevation myocardial infarction in essential thrombocythaemia: case report and review of the literature". Thrombosis Journal. 8 (1): 12. doi:10.1186/1477-9560-8-12. ISSN 1477-9560.
- ↑ How I treat symptomatic splenomegaly in patients with myelofibrosis. Blood journal. http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/113/22/5394?sso-checked=true Accessed on November 17, 2015.