Asthma risk factors: Difference between revisions

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Asthma is usually diagnosed in childhood. Numerous risk factors such as gender, allergen exposure, airway hyper-reactivity have been identified to play a role in the development of asthma.   
Asthma is usually diagnosed in childhood. Numerous risk factors such as gender, allergen exposure, airway hyper-reactivity have been identified to play a role in the development of asthma.   


==Common Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==
*The risk factors for asthma include:
The risk factors for asthma include:
:*Personal or family history of asthma or [[atopy]].<ref name="pmid17575099">Weinmayr G, Weiland SK, Björkstén B, Brunekreef B, Büchele G, Cookson WO et al. (2007) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17575099 Atopic sensitization and the international variation of asthma symptom prevalence in children.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 176 (6):565-74. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200607-994OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200607-994OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17575099 17575099]</ref><ref name="pmid17889931">Arbes SJ, Gergen PJ, Vaughn B, Zeldin DC (2007) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17889931 Asthma cases attributable to atopy: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 120 (5):1139-45. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.056 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.056] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17889931 17889931]</ref><ref name="pmid1891008">Sears MR, Burrows B, Flannery EM, Herbison GP, Hewitt CJ, Holdaway MD (1991) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1891008 Relation between airway responsiveness and serum IgE in children with asthma and in apparently normal children.] ''N Engl J Med'' 325 (15):1067-71. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199110103251504 DOI:10.1056/NEJM199110103251504] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/1891008 1891008]</ref><ref name="pmid2911321">Burrows B, Martinez FD, Halonen M, Barbee RA, Cline MG (1989) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2911321 Association of asthma with serum IgE levels and skin-test reactivity to allergens.] ''N Engl J Med'' 320 (5):271-7. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198902023200502 DOI:10.1056/NEJM198902023200502] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/2911321 2911321]</ref>
*Personal or family history of asthma or [[atopy]].<ref name="pmid17575099">Weinmayr G, Weiland SK, Björkstén B, Brunekreef B, Büchele G, Cookson WO et al. (2007) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17575099 Atopic sensitization and the international variation of asthma symptom prevalence in children.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 176 (6):565-74. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200607-994OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200607-994OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17575099 17575099]</ref><ref name="pmid17889931">Arbes SJ, Gergen PJ, Vaughn B, Zeldin DC (2007) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17889931 Asthma cases attributable to atopy: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 120 (5):1139-45. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.056 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.056] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17889931 17889931]</ref><ref name="pmid1891008">Sears MR, Burrows B, Flannery EM, Herbison GP, Hewitt CJ, Holdaway MD (1991) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1891008 Relation between airway responsiveness and serum IgE in children with asthma and in apparently normal children.] ''N Engl J Med'' 325 (15):1067-71. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199110103251504 DOI:10.1056/NEJM199110103251504] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/1891008 1891008]</ref><ref name="pmid2911321">Burrows B, Martinez FD, Halonen M, Barbee RA, Cline MG (1989) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2911321 Association of asthma with serum IgE levels and skin-test reactivity to allergens.] ''N Engl J Med'' 320 (5):271-7. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198902023200502 DOI:10.1056/NEJM198902023200502] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/2911321 2911321]</ref>
:*[[Allergic rhinitis]] is a significant risk factor for adult-onset asthma in both atopic and non-atopic individuals.<ref name="pmid11897985">Guerra S, Sherrill DL, Martinez FD, Barbee RA (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11897985 Rhinitis as an independent risk factor for adult-onset asthma.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 109 (3):419-25. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11897985 11897985]</ref><ref name="pmid17825896">Burgess JA, Walters EH, Byrnes GB, Matheson MC, Jenkins MA, Wharton CL et al. (2007) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17825896 Childhood allergic rhinitis predicts asthma incidence and persistence to middle age: a longitudinal study.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 120 (4):863-9. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.020 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.020] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17825896 17825896]</ref><ref name="pmid10208188">Huovinen E, Kaprio J, Laitinen LA, Koskenvuo M (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10208188 Incidence and prevalence of asthma among adult Finnish men and women of the Finnish Twin Cohort from 1975 to 1990, and their relation to hay fever and chronic bronchitis.] ''Chest'' 115 (4):928-36. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10208188 10208188]</ref><ref name="pmid18805333">Shaaban R, Zureik M, Soussan D, Neukirch C, Heinrich J, Sunyer J et al. (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18805333 Rhinitis and onset of asthma: a longitudinal population-based study.] ''Lancet'' 372 (9643):1049-57. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61446-4 DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61446-4] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18805333 18805333]</ref>
*[[Allergic rhinitis]] is a significant risk factor for adult-onset asthma in both atopic and non-atopic individuals.<ref name="pmid11897985">Guerra S, Sherrill DL, Martinez FD, Barbee RA (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11897985 Rhinitis as an independent risk factor for adult-onset asthma.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 109 (3):419-25. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11897985 11897985]</ref><ref name="pmid17825896">Burgess JA, Walters EH, Byrnes GB, Matheson MC, Jenkins MA, Wharton CL et al. (2007) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17825896 Childhood allergic rhinitis predicts asthma incidence and persistence to middle age: a longitudinal study.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 120 (4):863-9. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.020 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.020] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17825896 17825896]</ref><ref name="pmid10208188">Huovinen E, Kaprio J, Laitinen LA, Koskenvuo M (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10208188 Incidence and prevalence of asthma among adult Finnish men and women of the Finnish Twin Cohort from 1975 to 1990, and their relation to hay fever and chronic bronchitis.] ''Chest'' 115 (4):928-36. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10208188 10208188]</ref><ref name="pmid18805333">Shaaban R, Zureik M, Soussan D, Neukirch C, Heinrich J, Sunyer J et al. (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18805333 Rhinitis and onset of asthma: a longitudinal population-based study.] ''Lancet'' 372 (9643):1049-57. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61446-4 DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61446-4] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18805333 18805333]</ref>
:*[[Asthma pathophysiology#Stimuli or Triggering Factors|Triggers]] such as: smoke, dust, pollen, emotional stress and consumption of milk, peanuts, or eggs.<ref name="pmid8154638">Platts-Mills TA (1994) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8154638 How environment affects patients with allergic disease: indoor allergens and asthma.] ''Ann Allergy'' 72 (4):381-4. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8154638 8154638]</ref><ref name="pmid11052581">Lau S, Illi S, Sommerfeld C, Niggemann B, Bergmann R, von Mutius E et al. (2000) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11052581 Early exposure to house-dust mite and cat allergens and development of childhood asthma: a cohort study. Multicentre Allergy Study Group.] ''Lancet'' 356 (9239):1392-7. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11052581 11052581]</ref><ref name="pmid15867850">Brussee JE, Smit HA, van Strien RT, Corver K, Kerkhof M, Wijga AH et al. (2005) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15867850 Allergen exposure in infancy and the development of sensitization, wheeze, and asthma at 4 years.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 115 (5):946-52. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2005.02.035 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.02.035] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/15867850 15867850]</ref><ref name="pmid18602569">Tovey ER, Almqvist C, Li Q, Crisafulli D, Marks GB (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18602569 Nonlinear relationship of mite allergen exposure to mite sensitization and asthma in a birth cohort.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 122 (1):114-8, 118.e1-5. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.05.010 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.05.010] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18602569 18602569]</ref>
*[[Asthma pathophysiology#Stimuli or Triggering Factors|Triggers]] such as: smoke, dust, pollen, emotional stress and consumption of milk, peanuts, or eggs.<ref name="pmid8154638">Platts-Mills TA (1994) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8154638 How environment affects patients with allergic disease: indoor allergens and asthma.] ''Ann Allergy'' 72 (4):381-4. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8154638 8154638]</ref><ref name="pmid11052581">Lau S, Illi S, Sommerfeld C, Niggemann B, Bergmann R, von Mutius E et al. (2000) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11052581 Early exposure to house-dust mite and cat allergens and development of childhood asthma: a cohort study. Multicentre Allergy Study Group.] ''Lancet'' 356 (9239):1392-7. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11052581 11052581]</ref><ref name="pmid15867850">Brussee JE, Smit HA, van Strien RT, Corver K, Kerkhof M, Wijga AH et al. (2005) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15867850 Allergen exposure in infancy and the development of sensitization, wheeze, and asthma at 4 years.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 115 (5):946-52. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2005.02.035 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.02.035] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/15867850 15867850]</ref><ref name="pmid18602569">Tovey ER, Almqvist C, Li Q, Crisafulli D, Marks GB (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18602569 Nonlinear relationship of mite allergen exposure to mite sensitization and asthma in a birth cohort.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 122 (1):114-8, 118.e1-5. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.05.010 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.05.010] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18602569 18602569]</ref>
:*Exposure to indoor nitrogen di-oxide at levels well below the ''Environmental Protection Agency outdoor standard'' (53 ppb) has been shown to be associated with respiratory symptoms among children with asthma in multifamily housing.<ref name="pmid16254270">Belanger K, Gent JF, Triche EW, Bracken MB, Leaderer BP (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16254270 Association of indoor nitrogen dioxide exposure with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 173 (3):297-303. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200408-1123OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200408-1123OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/16254270 16254270]</ref>
*Exposure to indoor nitrogen di-oxide at levels well below the ''Environmental Protection Agency outdoor standard'' (53 ppb) has been shown to be associated with respiratory symptoms among children with asthma in multifamily housing.<ref name="pmid16254270">Belanger K, Gent JF, Triche EW, Bracken MB, Leaderer BP (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16254270 Association of indoor nitrogen dioxide exposure with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 173 (3):297-303. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200408-1123OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200408-1123OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/16254270 16254270]</ref>
:*[[Obesity]] has shown to be associated with increased severity of asthma.<ref name="pmid18156567">Taylor B, Mannino D, Brown C, Crocker D, Twum-Baah N, Holguin F (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18156567 Body mass index and asthma severity in the National Asthma Survey.] ''Thorax'' 63 (1):14-20. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.2007.082784 DOI:10.1136/thx.2007.082784] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18156567 18156567]</ref><ref name="pmid18980776">Coogan PF, Palmer JR, O'Connor GT, Rosenberg L (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18980776 Body mass index and asthma incidence in the Black Women's Health Study.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 123 (1):89-95. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.09.040 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.09.040] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18980776 18980776]</ref><ref name="pmid17234901">Beuther DA, Sutherland ER (2007) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17234901 Overweight, obesity, and incident asthma: a meta-analysis of prospective epidemiologic studies.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 175 (7):661-6. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200611-1717OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200611-1717OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17234901 17234901]</ref><ref name="pmid15867846">Shore SA, Fredberg JJ (2005) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15867846 Obesity, smooth muscle, and airway hyperresponsiveness.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 115 (5):925-7. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2005.01.064 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.01.064] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/15867846 15867846]</ref><ref name="pmid10731173">Stenius-Aarniala B, Poussa T, Kvarnström J, Grönlund EL, Ylikahri M, Mustajoki P (2000) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10731173 Immediate and long term effects of weight reduction in obese people with asthma: randomised controlled study.] ''BMJ'' 320 (7238):827-32. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10731173 10731173]</ref>
*[[Obesity]] has shown to be associated with increased severity of asthma.<ref name="pmid18156567">Taylor B, Mannino D, Brown C, Crocker D, Twum-Baah N, Holguin F (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18156567 Body mass index and asthma severity in the National Asthma Survey.] ''Thorax'' 63 (1):14-20. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.2007.082784 DOI:10.1136/thx.2007.082784] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18156567 18156567]</ref><ref name="pmid18980776">Coogan PF, Palmer JR, O'Connor GT, Rosenberg L (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18980776 Body mass index and asthma incidence in the Black Women's Health Study.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 123 (1):89-95. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.09.040 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.09.040] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18980776 18980776]</ref><ref name="pmid17234901">Beuther DA, Sutherland ER (2007) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17234901 Overweight, obesity, and incident asthma: a meta-analysis of prospective epidemiologic studies.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 175 (7):661-6. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200611-1717OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200611-1717OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17234901 17234901]</ref><ref name="pmid15867846">Shore SA, Fredberg JJ (2005) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15867846 Obesity, smooth muscle, and airway hyperresponsiveness.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 115 (5):925-7. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2005.01.064 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.01.064] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/15867846 15867846]</ref><ref name="pmid10731173">Stenius-Aarniala B, Poussa T, Kvarnström J, Grönlund EL, Ylikahri M, Mustajoki P (2000) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10731173 Immediate and long term effects of weight reduction in obese people with asthma: randomised controlled study.] ''BMJ'' 320 (7238):827-32. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10731173 10731173]</ref>
:*Male preponderance for asthma in prepubertal children.<ref name="pmid7792118">Sennhauser FH, Kühni CE (1995) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7792118 Prevalence of respiratory symptoms in Swiss children: is bronchial asthma really more prevalent in boys?] ''Pediatr Pulmonol'' 19 (3):161-6. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/7792118 7792118]</ref>
*Male preponderance for asthma in prepubertal children.<ref name="pmid7792118">Sennhauser FH, Kühni CE (1995) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7792118 Prevalence of respiratory symptoms in Swiss children: is bronchial asthma really more prevalent in boys?] ''Pediatr Pulmonol'' 19 (3):161-6. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/7792118 7792118]</ref>
:*Female preponderance results in the persistence of asthma into adulthood.<ref name="pmid7792116">Weiss ST, Gold DR (1995) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7792116 Gender differences in asthma.] ''Pediatr Pulmonol'' 19 (3):153-5. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/7792116 7792116]</ref>
*Female preponderance results in the persistence of asthma into adulthood.<ref name="pmid7792116">Weiss ST, Gold DR (1995) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7792116 Gender differences in asthma.] ''Pediatr Pulmonol'' 19 (3):153-5. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/7792116 7792116]</ref>
:*Maternal [[smoking]]<ref name="pmid8634562">Strachan DP, Butland BK, Anderson HR (1996) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8634562 Incidence and prognosis of asthma and wheezing illness from early childhood to age 33 in a national British cohort.] ''BMJ'' 312 (7040):1195-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8634562 8634562]</ref><ref name="pmid16973983">Gilliland FD, Islam T, Berhane K, Gauderman WJ, McConnell R, Avol E et al. (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16973983 Regular smoking and asthma incidence in adolescents.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 174 (10):1094-100. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200605-722OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200605-722OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/16973983 16973983]</ref><ref name="pmid18436295">Polosa R, Knoke JD, Russo C, Piccillo G, Caponnetto P, Sarvà M et al. (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18436295 Cigarette smoking is associated with a greater risk of incident asthma in allergic rhinitis.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 121 (6):1428-34. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.02.041 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.02.041] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18436295 18436295]</ref><ref name="pmid2314963">Weitzman M, Gortmaker S, Walker DK, Sobol A (1990) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2314963 Maternal smoking and childhood asthma.] ''Pediatrics'' 85 (4):505-11. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/2314963 2314963]</ref>
*Maternal [[smoking]]<ref name="pmid8634562">Strachan DP, Butland BK, Anderson HR (1996) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8634562 Incidence and prognosis of asthma and wheezing illness from early childhood to age 33 in a national British cohort.] ''BMJ'' 312 (7040):1195-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8634562 8634562]</ref><ref name="pmid16973983">Gilliland FD, Islam T, Berhane K, Gauderman WJ, McConnell R, Avol E et al. (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16973983 Regular smoking and asthma incidence in adolescents.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 174 (10):1094-100. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200605-722OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200605-722OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/16973983 16973983]</ref><ref name="pmid18436295">Polosa R, Knoke JD, Russo C, Piccillo G, Caponnetto P, Sarvà M et al. (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18436295 Cigarette smoking is associated with a greater risk of incident asthma in allergic rhinitis.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 121 (6):1428-34. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.02.041 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.02.041] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18436295 18436295]</ref><ref name="pmid2314963">Weitzman M, Gortmaker S, Walker DK, Sobol A (1990) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2314963 Maternal smoking and childhood asthma.] ''Pediatrics'' 85 (4):505-11. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/2314963 2314963]</ref>
:*[[Premature birth]] or [[low birth weight]]<ref name="pmid17030233">Jaakkola JJ, Ahmed P, Ieromnimon A, Goepfert P, Laiou E, Quansah R et al. (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17030233 Preterm delivery and asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 118 (4):823-30. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2006.06.043 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.06.043] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17030233 17030233]</ref><ref name="pmid8345417">von Mutius E, Nicolai T, Martinez FD (1993) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8345417 Prematurity as a risk factor for asthma in preadolescent children.] ''J Pediatr'' 123 (2):223-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8345417 8345417]</ref><ref name="pmid8223814">Frischer T, Kuehr J, Meinert R, Karmaus W, Urbanek R (1993) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8223814 Risk factors for childhood asthma and recurrent wheezy bronchitis.] ''Eur J Pediatr'' 152 (9):771-5. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8223814 8223814]</ref> Reduced lung function at birth has shown to be associated with an increased risk of development of asthma by 10 years of age.<ref name="pmid17050892">Håland G, Carlsen KC, Sandvik L, Devulapalli CS, Munthe-Kaas MC, Pettersen M et al. (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17050892 Reduced lung function at birth and the risk of asthma at 10 years of age.] ''N Engl J Med'' 355 (16):1682-9. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa052885 DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa052885] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17050892 17050892]</ref>   
*[[Premature birth]] or [[low birth weight]]<ref name="pmid17030233">Jaakkola JJ, Ahmed P, Ieromnimon A, Goepfert P, Laiou E, Quansah R et al. (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17030233 Preterm delivery and asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 118 (4):823-30. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2006.06.043 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.06.043] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17030233 17030233]</ref><ref name="pmid8345417">von Mutius E, Nicolai T, Martinez FD (1993) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8345417 Prematurity as a risk factor for asthma in preadolescent children.] ''J Pediatr'' 123 (2):223-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8345417 8345417]</ref><ref name="pmid8223814">Frischer T, Kuehr J, Meinert R, Karmaus W, Urbanek R (1993) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8223814 Risk factors for childhood asthma and recurrent wheezy bronchitis.] ''Eur J Pediatr'' 152 (9):771-5. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8223814 8223814]</ref> Reduced lung function at birth has shown to be associated with an increased risk of development of asthma by 10 years of age.<ref name="pmid17050892">Håland G, Carlsen KC, Sandvik L, Devulapalli CS, Munthe-Kaas MC, Pettersen M et al. (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17050892 Reduced lung function at birth and the risk of asthma at 10 years of age.] ''N Engl J Med'' 355 (16):1682-9. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa052885 DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa052885] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/17050892 17050892]</ref>   
:*Upper respiratory viral infections are associated with an increased incidence of asthma exacerbations in childhood and in adults.<ref name="pmid7767192">Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G, Smith S, Lampe F, Josephs L et al. (1995) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7767192 Community study of role of viral infections in exacerbations of asthma in 9-11 year old children.] ''BMJ'' 310 (6989):1225-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/7767192 7767192]</ref><ref name="pmid8241910">Nicholson KG, Kent J, Ireland DC (1993) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8241910 Respiratory viruses and exacerbations of asthma in adults.] ''BMJ'' 307 (6910):982-6. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8241910 8241910]</ref><ref name="pmid19286626">Thomsen SF, van der Sluis S, Stensballe LG, Posthuma D, Skytthe A, Kyvik KO et al. (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19286626 Exploring the association between severe respiratory syncytial virus infection and asthma: a registry-based twin study.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 179 (12):1091-7. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200809-1471OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200809-1471OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/19286626 19286626]</ref><ref name="pmid19498062">Kuehni CE, Spycher BD, Silverman M (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19498062 Causal links between RSV infection and asthma: no clear answers to an old question.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 179 (12):1079-80. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200904-0567ED DOI:10.1164/rccm.200904-0567ED] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/19498062 19498062]</ref>
*Upper respiratory viral infections are associated with an increased incidence of asthma exacerbations in childhood and in adults.<ref name="pmid7767192">Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G, Smith S, Lampe F, Josephs L et al. (1995) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7767192 Community study of role of viral infections in exacerbations of asthma in 9-11 year old children.] ''BMJ'' 310 (6989):1225-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/7767192 7767192]</ref><ref name="pmid8241910">Nicholson KG, Kent J, Ireland DC (1993) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8241910 Respiratory viruses and exacerbations of asthma in adults.] ''BMJ'' 307 (6910):982-6. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8241910 8241910]</ref><ref name="pmid19286626">Thomsen SF, van der Sluis S, Stensballe LG, Posthuma D, Skytthe A, Kyvik KO et al. (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19286626 Exploring the association between severe respiratory syncytial virus infection and asthma: a registry-based twin study.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 179 (12):1091-7. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200809-1471OC DOI:10.1164/rccm.200809-1471OC] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/19286626 19286626]</ref><ref name="pmid19498062">Kuehni CE, Spycher BD, Silverman M (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19498062 Causal links between RSV infection and asthma: no clear answers to an old question.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 179 (12):1079-80. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200904-0567ED DOI:10.1164/rccm.200904-0567ED] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/19498062 19498062]</ref>
:*The presence of [[bronchial hyperresponsiveness]] and concomitant [[atopic diseases|atopic manifestations]] in childhood increase the risk of developing asthma in adulthood.<ref name="pmid16478846">Porsbjerg C, von Linstow ML, Ulrik CS, Nepper-Christensen S, Backer V (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16478846 Risk factors for onset of asthma: a 12-year prospective follow-up study.] ''Chest'' 129 (2):309-16. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.129.2.309 DOI:10.1378/chest.129.2.309] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/16478846 16478846]</ref><ref name="pmid8542143">Carey VJ, Weiss ST, Tager IB, Leeder SR, Speizer FE (1996) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8542143 Airways responsiveness, wheeze onset, and recurrent asthma episodes in young adolescents. The East Boston Childhood Respiratory Disease Cohort.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 153 (1):356-61. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8542143 8542143]</ref><ref name="pmid1395752">Zhong NS, Chen RC, Yang MO, Wu ZY, Zheng JP, Li YF (1992) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1395752 Is asymptomatic bronchial hyperresponsiveness an indication of potential asthma? A two-year follow-up of young students with bronchial hyperresponsiveness.] ''Chest'' 102 (4):1104-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/1395752 1395752]</ref>
*The presence of [[bronchial hyperresponsiveness]] and concomitant [[atopic diseases|atopic manifestations]] in childhood increase the risk of developing asthma in adulthood.<ref name="pmid16478846">Porsbjerg C, von Linstow ML, Ulrik CS, Nepper-Christensen S, Backer V (2006) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16478846 Risk factors for onset of asthma: a 12-year prospective follow-up study.] ''Chest'' 129 (2):309-16. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.129.2.309 DOI:10.1378/chest.129.2.309] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/16478846 16478846]</ref><ref name="pmid8542143">Carey VJ, Weiss ST, Tager IB, Leeder SR, Speizer FE (1996) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8542143 Airways responsiveness, wheeze onset, and recurrent asthma episodes in young adolescents. The East Boston Childhood Respiratory Disease Cohort.] ''Am J Respir Crit Care Med'' 153 (1):356-61. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/8542143 8542143]</ref><ref name="pmid1395752">Zhong NS, Chen RC, Yang MO, Wu ZY, Zheng JP, Li YF (1992) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1395752 Is asymptomatic bronchial hyperresponsiveness an indication of potential asthma? A two-year follow-up of young students with bronchial hyperresponsiveness.] ''Chest'' 102 (4):1104-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/1395752 1395752]</ref>
*There is a reduced occurrence of asthma in people who were breast-fed as babies.<ref name="pmid19249083">Pali-Schöll I, Renz H, Jensen-Jarolim E (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19249083 Update on allergies in pregnancy, lactation, and early childhood.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 123 (5):1012-21. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.01.045 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.01.045] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/19249083 19249083]</ref><ref name="pmid18166574">Greer FR, Sicherer SH, Burks AW, American Academy of Pediatrics  Committee on Nutrition. American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Allergy and Immunology (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18166574 Effects of early nutritional interventions on the development of atopic disease in infants and children: the role of maternal dietary restriction, breastfeeding, timing of introduction of complementary foods, and hydrolyzed formulas.] ''Pediatrics'' 121 (1):183-91. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3022 DOI:10.1542/peds.2007-3022] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18166574 18166574]</ref><ref name="pmid10373144">Høst A, Koletzko B, Dreborg S, Muraro A, Wahn U, Aggett P et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10373144 Dietary products used in infants for treatment and prevention of food allergy. Joint Statement of the European Society for Paediatric Allergology and Clinical Immunology (ESPACI) Committee on Hypoallergenic Formulas and the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) Committee on Nutrition.] ''Arch Dis Child'' 81 (1):80-4. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10373144 10373144]</ref>  
*There is a reduced occurrence of asthma in people who were breast-fed as babies.<ref name="pmid19249083">Pali-Schöll I, Renz H, Jensen-Jarolim E (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19249083 Update on allergies in pregnancy, lactation, and early childhood.] ''J Allergy Clin Immunol'' 123 (5):1012-21. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.01.045 DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.01.045] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/19249083 19249083]</ref><ref name="pmid18166574">Greer FR, Sicherer SH, Burks AW, American Academy of Pediatrics  Committee on Nutrition. American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Allergy and Immunology (2008) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18166574 Effects of early nutritional interventions on the development of atopic disease in infants and children: the role of maternal dietary restriction, breastfeeding, timing of introduction of complementary foods, and hydrolyzed formulas.] ''Pediatrics'' 121 (1):183-91. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3022 DOI:10.1542/peds.2007-3022] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/18166574 18166574]</ref><ref name="pmid10373144">Høst A, Koletzko B, Dreborg S, Muraro A, Wahn U, Aggett P et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10373144 Dietary products used in infants for treatment and prevention of food allergy. Joint Statement of the European Society for Paediatric Allergology and Clinical Immunology (ESPACI) Committee on Hypoallergenic Formulas and the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) Committee on Nutrition.] ''Arch Dis Child'' 81 (1):80-4. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10373144 10373144]</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 18:29, 4 March 2013

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Editor(s)-in-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Phone:617-632-7753; Philip Marcus, M.D., M.P.H. [2]; Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief: Lakshmi Gopalakrishnan, M.B.B.S. [3]

Overview

Asthma is usually diagnosed in childhood. Numerous risk factors such as gender, allergen exposure, airway hyper-reactivity have been identified to play a role in the development of asthma.

Risk Factors

The risk factors for asthma include:

  • Personal or family history of asthma or atopy.[1][2][3][4]
  • Allergic rhinitis is a significant risk factor for adult-onset asthma in both atopic and non-atopic individuals.[5][6][7][8]
  • Triggers such as: smoke, dust, pollen, emotional stress and consumption of milk, peanuts, or eggs.[9][10][11][12]
  • Exposure to indoor nitrogen di-oxide at levels well below the Environmental Protection Agency outdoor standard (53 ppb) has been shown to be associated with respiratory symptoms among children with asthma in multifamily housing.[13]
  • Obesity has shown to be associated with increased severity of asthma.[14][15][16][17][18]
  • Male preponderance for asthma in prepubertal children.[19]
  • Female preponderance results in the persistence of asthma into adulthood.[20]
  • Maternal smoking[21][22][23][24]
  • Premature birth or low birth weight[25][26][27] Reduced lung function at birth has shown to be associated with an increased risk of development of asthma by 10 years of age.[28]
  • Upper respiratory viral infections are associated with an increased incidence of asthma exacerbations in childhood and in adults.[29][30][31][32]
  • The presence of bronchial hyperresponsiveness and concomitant atopic manifestations in childhood increase the risk of developing asthma in adulthood.[33][34][35]
  • There is a reduced occurrence of asthma in people who were breast-fed as babies.[36][37][38]

References

  1. ↑ Weinmayr G, Weiland SK, Björkstén B, Brunekreef B, Büchele G, Cookson WO et al. (2007) Atopic sensitization and the international variation of asthma symptom prevalence in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 176 (6):565-74. DOI:10.1164/rccm.200607-994OC PMID: 17575099
  2. ↑ Arbes SJ, Gergen PJ, Vaughn B, Zeldin DC (2007) Asthma cases attributable to atopy: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120 (5):1139-45. DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.056 PMID: 17889931
  3. ↑ Sears MR, Burrows B, Flannery EM, Herbison GP, Hewitt CJ, Holdaway MD (1991) Relation between airway responsiveness and serum IgE in children with asthma and in apparently normal children. N Engl J Med 325 (15):1067-71. DOI:10.1056/NEJM199110103251504 PMID: 1891008
  4. ↑ Burrows B, Martinez FD, Halonen M, Barbee RA, Cline MG (1989) Association of asthma with serum IgE levels and skin-test reactivity to allergens. N Engl J Med 320 (5):271-7. DOI:10.1056/NEJM198902023200502 PMID: 2911321
  5. ↑ Guerra S, Sherrill DL, Martinez FD, Barbee RA (2002) Rhinitis as an independent risk factor for adult-onset asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 109 (3):419-25. PMID: 11897985
  6. ↑ Burgess JA, Walters EH, Byrnes GB, Matheson MC, Jenkins MA, Wharton CL et al. (2007) Childhood allergic rhinitis predicts asthma incidence and persistence to middle age: a longitudinal study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120 (4):863-9. DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.020 PMID: 17825896
  7. ↑ Huovinen E, Kaprio J, Laitinen LA, Koskenvuo M (1999) Incidence and prevalence of asthma among adult Finnish men and women of the Finnish Twin Cohort from 1975 to 1990, and their relation to hay fever and chronic bronchitis. Chest 115 (4):928-36. PMID: 10208188
  8. ↑ Shaaban R, Zureik M, Soussan D, Neukirch C, Heinrich J, Sunyer J et al. (2008) Rhinitis and onset of asthma: a longitudinal population-based study. Lancet 372 (9643):1049-57. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61446-4 PMID: 18805333
  9. ↑ Platts-Mills TA (1994) How environment affects patients with allergic disease: indoor allergens and asthma. Ann Allergy 72 (4):381-4. PMID: 8154638
  10. ↑ Lau S, Illi S, Sommerfeld C, Niggemann B, Bergmann R, von Mutius E et al. (2000) Early exposure to house-dust mite and cat allergens and development of childhood asthma: a cohort study. Multicentre Allergy Study Group. Lancet 356 (9239):1392-7. PMID: 11052581
  11. ↑ Brussee JE, Smit HA, van Strien RT, Corver K, Kerkhof M, Wijga AH et al. (2005) Allergen exposure in infancy and the development of sensitization, wheeze, and asthma at 4 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol 115 (5):946-52. DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.02.035 PMID: 15867850
  12. ↑ Tovey ER, Almqvist C, Li Q, Crisafulli D, Marks GB (2008) Nonlinear relationship of mite allergen exposure to mite sensitization and asthma in a birth cohort. J Allergy Clin Immunol 122 (1):114-8, 118.e1-5. DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.05.010 PMID: 18602569
  13. ↑ Belanger K, Gent JF, Triche EW, Bracken MB, Leaderer BP (2006) Association of indoor nitrogen dioxide exposure with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 173 (3):297-303. DOI:10.1164/rccm.200408-1123OC PMID: 16254270
  14. ↑ Taylor B, Mannino D, Brown C, Crocker D, Twum-Baah N, Holguin F (2008) Body mass index and asthma severity in the National Asthma Survey. Thorax 63 (1):14-20. DOI:10.1136/thx.2007.082784 PMID: 18156567
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  17. ↑ Shore SA, Fredberg JJ (2005) Obesity, smooth muscle, and airway hyperresponsiveness. J Allergy Clin Immunol 115 (5):925-7. DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.01.064 PMID: 15867846
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  26. ↑ von Mutius E, Nicolai T, Martinez FD (1993) Prematurity as a risk factor for asthma in preadolescent children. J Pediatr 123 (2):223-9. PMID: 8345417
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  30. ↑ Nicholson KG, Kent J, Ireland DC (1993) Respiratory viruses and exacerbations of asthma in adults. BMJ 307 (6910):982-6. PMID: 8241910
  31. ↑ Thomsen SF, van der Sluis S, Stensballe LG, Posthuma D, Skytthe A, Kyvik KO et al. (2009) Exploring the association between severe respiratory syncytial virus infection and asthma: a registry-based twin study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 179 (12):1091-7. DOI:10.1164/rccm.200809-1471OC PMID: 19286626
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  37. ↑ Greer FR, Sicherer SH, Burks AW, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Allergy and Immunology (2008) Effects of early nutritional interventions on the development of atopic disease in infants and children: the role of maternal dietary restriction, breastfeeding, timing of introduction of complementary foods, and hydrolyzed formulas. Pediatrics 121 (1):183-91. DOI:10.1542/peds.2007-3022 PMID: 18166574
  38. ↑ Høst A, Koletzko B, Dreborg S, Muraro A, Wahn U, Aggett P et al. (1999) Dietary products used in infants for treatment and prevention of food allergy. Joint Statement of the European Society for Paediatric Allergology and Clinical Immunology (ESPACI) Committee on Hypoallergenic Formulas and the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) Committee on Nutrition. Arch Dis Child 81 (1):80-4. PMID: 10373144

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