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Disease Signs and Symptoms Barium esophagogran Endoscopy Other imaging findings Gold Standard
Onset Dysphagia Weight loss Heartburn Other findings
Plummer-Vinson syndrome Gradual + +/- - Glossitis

Koilonychia

  • Direct visualization of esophageal webs
Videofluoroscopy:

Triad of

  • Iron deficiency anemia
  • Esophageal webs
  • Glossitis

polyglandular autoimmune syndrome polyendocrine autoimmune syndrome

tryptophan hydroxylase presenting with malabsorption

      • Tyrosine hydroxylase presenting with alopecia areata
      • Liver presenting with autoimmune liver disease and chronic active hepatitis
      • Steroidal hormone–producing cell presenting with hypogonadism.


X linked polyendocrinopathy, immune dysfunction and diarrhea. This condition is very rare and generally presents in neonatal period with diabetes and malabsorption. Unlike type 1 and type 2 autoimmune polyglandular syndromes there is no association with HLA genotype. Mutation in FOXP3 gene is inherited as X linked and leads to loss of regulatory T cells and autoimmunity.

The term “polyendocrine” itself is a misnomer, in that not all patients have multiple endocrine disorders, and many have nonendocrine autoimmune diseases. Nevertheless, the recognition that patients in whom multiple autoimmune disorders are diagnosed may have a specific genetic syndrome, may be at increased risk for multiple autoimmune disorders, and may have relatives who have an increased risk should spur clinicians toward early diagnosis and treatment.

In the simplest hypothesis for understanding organ-specific autoimmunity, the initial step is the loss of immunologic tolerance to a peptide within a specific molecule found in the target organ. Clones of the CD4 T cells that recognize the peptide then expand, and the specific cytokines produced by the clonal CD4 T cells favor inflammation (as when type 1 helper T [Th1]–cell clones produce cytokines such as interferon-γ) or favor autoantibody-mediated disease (as is the case predominantly with type 2 helper T [Th2]–cell clones).9 The probability of T-cell autoreactivity is determined both in the thymus (the site of central tolerance) and in the periphery (the site of peripheral tolerance) and is strongly influenced by specific HLA alleles


TYPE 1 APS Mutations in the AIRE gene cause many autoimmune diseases, and affected patients are at risk for the development of multiple additional autoimmune diseases over time, including type 1A diabetes, hypothyroidism, pernicious anemia, alopecia, vitiligo, hepatitis, ovarian atrophy, and keratitis. Affected patients may also have diarrhea or obstipation that may be related to the destruction of gastrointestinal endocrine cells (enterochromaffin and enterochromaffin-like cells).39 Knockout of the AIRE gene in the mouse produces widespread autoimmunity, but the phenotype is relatively mild. SYMPTOMS TYPE1 Addison's disease develops in 80 percent of patients with autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I, and type 1A diabetes develops in 18 percent

PROGNOSISI TYPE 1 After diagnosis, patients with autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I require close monitoring. Monitoring can help prevent illness associated with delayed diagnosis of additional autoimmune diseases (e.g., Addison's disease and hypoparathyroidism, which can develop during adulthood) as well as oral cancer, which may develop if candidiasis is not treated aggressively, and infection due to asplenism, which is present in a subgroup of patients.

  • In patients with autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes who have a single disorder such as Addison's disease or type 1A diabetes, the prevalence of additional autoimmune disorders is 30 to 50 times that in the general population.60,61 The concurrence of more than one endocrinopathy presumably results from shared genetic susceptibility leading to loss of tolerance to multiple tissues


TYPE 2 Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type II (also called Schmidt's syndrome with Addison's disease plus hypothyroidism) is much more common and more varied in its manifestations than autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I.


TYpe 3 X-Linked Polyendocrinopathy, Immune Dysfunction, and Diarrhea. The syndrome of X-linked polyendocrinopathy, immune dysfunction, and diarrhea (known as XPID) is an extremely rare disorder characterized by fulminant, widespread autoimmunity and type 1A diabetes, which usually develops in neonates; it is often fatal. The disorder is also known as XLAAD (X-linked autoimmunity and allergic dysregulation) and IPEX (immune dysfunction, polyendocrinopathy, and enteropathy, X-linked)


Aldosterone Deficiency: Hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism - Commonly seen in patients with renal insufficiency (diabetic kidney disease, chronic tubulointerstitial disease, or glomerulonephritis) and those that take certain medications (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, calcineurin inhibitors).[1] Angiotensin inhibitors - angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), direct renin inhibitors Heparin therapy (including low molecular weight heparin) - Heparin has a direct toxic effect on the adrenal zona glomerulosa cells which leads to a reduction in plasma aldosterone concentration.[9] Primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison’s disease) - Associated with the lack of cortisol and aldosterone. This can result from autoimmune adrenalitis, infectious adrenalitis, and other disorders.[14] Critical illness - There is decreased adrenal production of aldosterone and stress-induced hypersecretion of ACTH which can diminish aldosterone synthesis by diverting substrate to the production of cortisol. Congenital isolated hypoaldosteronism - Deficiency of enzymes required for aldosterone synthesis.[14] Pseudohypoaldosteronism type 2 (Gordon’s syndrome or familial hyperkalemic hypertension) - Abnormalities in WNK kinases in the distal nephron increase chloride reabsorption leading to reduced renal potassium secretion. Characterized by hypertension, hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, normal renal function, and low or low-normal plasma renin activity and aldosterone concentrations.[14][2] Aldosterone Resistance: Inhibitors of the epithelial sodium channel - Most commonly associated with the administation of potassium-sparing diuretics (spironolactone, eplerenone, amiloride) and certain antibiotics (trimethoprim, pentamidine). Pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 - Characterized by marked elevations of plasma aldosterone levels. There is an autosomal recessive form, and an autosomal dominant or sporadic form. The autosomal dominant form tends to be associated with milder symptoms

Type of

Adrenal insufficiency

Skin Pigmentation ACTH  Normal ACTH
Addison disease + >60 ng/mL 5-30 ng/mL
Secondary /

tertiary adrenal insufficiency

- <5 ng/mL

Addison's disease must be differentiated from other diseases that cause hypotension, skin pigmentation, and abdominal pain such as myopathies, celiac disease, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome ,anorexia nervosa, syndrome of inappropriate anti-diuretic hormone (SIADH), neurofibromatosis, porphyria cutanea tarda, salt-depletion nephritis and bronchogenic carcinoma.[1][2]

Disease Differentiating symptoms Differentiating laboratory findings Gold standard test
Hypotension Abdominal pain Anorexia/

weight loss

Muscle weakness Hypoglycemia Skin pigmentation Other symptoms Hyponatremia Cortisol levels Other labs
Addison's disease + + + + + + - Low ACTH stimulation test
Myopathies

(polymyositis,

hereditary myopathies)

- - - + - Heliotrope rash and

Gottron's sign

- Normal - Muscle biopsy
Celiac disease - + + - - Dermatitis herpetiformis  - Normal - Abnormal small bowel biopsy
Syndrome of inappropriate anti-diuretic hormone

(SIADH)

- - - - - - - + Normal Water deprivation test
Neurofibromatosis - - + + - Axillary- and inguinal-area freckling - - - Biopsy of skin tissue
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome + + - Normal Colonic imaging showing the small intestinal polyps
Porphyria cutanea tarda - + - - - Blisters on sun-exposed sites - Normal or elevated High level of porphyrins in the urine
Salt-depletion nephritis + Flank pain - - - - + Elevated <15:1 BUN:CR
Bronchogenic carcinoma - - + - - + - Elevated Increased ACTH and

Hypokalemia

Cytological or histological evidence of lung cancer in sputum, pleural fluid, or tissue
Anorexia nervosa + - + + + - - Elevated - Psychiatric condition
  1. Selva-O'Callaghan A, Labrador-Horrillo M, Gallardo E, Herruzo A, Grau-Junyent JM, Vilardell-Tarres M (2006). "Muscle inflammation, autoimmune Addison's disease and sarcoidosis in a patient with dysferlin deficiency". Neuromuscul. Disord. 16 (3): 208–9. doi:10.1016/j.nmd.2006.01.005. PMID 16483775.
  2. Kumar V, Rajadhyaksha M, Wortsman J (2001). "Celiac disease-associated autoimmune endocrinopathies". Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 8 (4): 678–85. doi:10.1128/CDLI.8.4.678-685.2001. PMC 96126. PMID 11427410.