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==Common Risk Factors==
==Common Risk Factors==
The common risk factors that contribute to the high LDL levels are
The common risk factors that contribute to high LDL level are


*Genetic predisposition plays a major role in determining a persons blood cholesterol level.  Genetic factors and family history are the primary contributing factors to high LDL levels and it mostly has a polygenic mechanism that might add to the variable penetrance of the disorder.<ref name="Talmud-2013">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Talmud | first1 = PJ. | last2 = Shah | first2 = S. | last3 = Whittall | first3 = R. | last4 = Futema | first4 = M. | last5 = Howard | first5 = P. | last6 = Cooper | first6 = JA. | last7 = Harrison | first7 = SC. | last8 = Li | first8 = K. | last9 = Drenos | first9 = F. | title = Use of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol gene score to distinguish patients with polygenic and monogenic familial hypercholesterolaemia: a case-control study. | journal = Lancet | volume = 381 | issue = 9874 | pages = 1293-301 | month = Apr | year = 2013 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62127-8 | PMID = 23433573 }}</ref>
*Genetic predisposition plays a major role in determining a persons blood cholesterol level.  Genetic factors and family history are the primary contributing factors to high LDL levels and it mostly has a polygenic mechanism that might add to the variable penetrance of the disorder.<ref name="Talmud-2013">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Talmud | first1 = PJ. | last2 = Shah | first2 = S. | last3 = Whittall | first3 = R. | last4 = Futema | first4 = M. | last5 = Howard | first5 = P. | last6 = Cooper | first6 = JA. | last7 = Harrison | first7 = SC. | last8 = Li | first8 = K. | last9 = Drenos | first9 = F. | title = Use of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol gene score to distinguish patients with polygenic and monogenic familial hypercholesterolaemia: a case-control study. | journal = Lancet | volume = 381 | issue = 9874 | pages = 1293-301 | month = Apr | year = 2013 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62127-8 | PMID = 23433573 }}</ref>
*Aging might increase the risk of [[dyslipidemia]].  Men aged 45 years or older and women aged 55 years or older are at increased risk of having high LDL levels.  
*Aging might increase the risk of [[dyslipidemia]].  Men aged 45 years or older and women aged 55 years or older are at increased risk of having high LDL levels.<ref name="Félix-Redondo-2013">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Félix-Redondo | first1 = FJ. | last2 = Grau | first2 = M. | last3 = Fernández-Bergés | first3 = D. | title = Cholesterol and cardiovascular disease in the elderly. Facts and gaps. | journal = Aging Dis | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 154-69 | month = Jun | year = 2013 | doi =  | PMID = 23730531 }}</ref><ref name="Parini-1999">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Parini | first1 = P. | last2 = Angelin | first2 = B. | last3 = Rudling | first3 = M. | title = Cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism in aging: reversal of hypercholesterolemia by growth hormone treatment in old rats. | journal = Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 832-9 | month = Apr | year = 1999 | doi =  | PMID = 10195906 }}</ref>
*Before the age of [[menopause]], women have lower LDL levels than men of the same age.  But after the age of menopause, women's LDL levels tend to rise and thus women of post menopausal age group carry the risk of developing high LDL disorder.
*Before the age of [[menopause]], women have lower LDL levels than men of the same age.  But after the age of menopause, women's LDL levels tend to rise and thus women of post menopausal age group carry the risk of developing high LDL disorder.<ref name="Lee-2013">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Lee | first1 = JS. | last2 = Hayashi | first2 = K. | last3 = Mishra | first3 = G. | last4 = Yasui | first4 = T. | last5 = Kubota | first5 = T. | last6 = Mizunuma | first6 = H. | title = Independent association between age at natural menopause and hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus: Japan nurses' health study. | journal = J Atheroscler Thromb | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 161-9 | month = Feb | year = 2013 | doi =  | PMID = 23079582 }}</ref><ref name="Honjo-">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Honjo | first1 = H. | last2 = Tanaka | first2 = K. | last3 = Urabe | first3 = M. | last4 = Naitoh | first4 = K. | last5 = Ogino | first5 = Y. | last6 = Yamamoto | first6 = T. | last7 = Okada | first7 = H. | title = Menopause and hyperlipidemia: pravastatin lowers lipid levels without decreasing endogenous estrogens. | journal = Clin Ther | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 699-707 | month =  | year =  | doi =  | PMID = 1345259 }}</ref>
*Life style choices have also been demonstrated as significant risk factors for developing high LDL during the adulthood.<ref name="Magnussen-2011">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Magnussen | first1 = CG. | last2 = Thomson | first2 = R. | last3 = Cleland | first3 = VJ. | last4 = Ukoumunne | first4 = OC. | last5 = Dwyer | first5 = T. | last6 = Venn | first6 = A. | title = Factors affecting the stability of blood lipid and lipoprotein levels from youth to adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study. | journal = Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | volume = 165 | issue = 1 | pages = 68-76 | month = Jan | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.246 | PMID = 21199983 }}</ref>  High trans fat and saturated fat diet, physical inactivity, smoking (especially in diabetics), excessive alcohol intake are the contributing unhealthy life style choices.
*Life style choices have also been demonstrated as significant risk factors for developing high LDL during the adulthood.<ref name="Magnussen-2011">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Magnussen | first1 = CG. | last2 = Thomson | first2 = R. | last3 = Cleland | first3 = VJ. | last4 = Ukoumunne | first4 = OC. | last5 = Dwyer | first5 = T. | last6 = Venn | first6 = A. | title = Factors affecting the stability of blood lipid and lipoprotein levels from youth to adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study. | journal = Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | volume = 165 | issue = 1 | pages = 68-76 | month = Jan | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.246 | PMID = 21199983 }}</ref>  High [[trans fat]] and [[saturated fat]] diet, physical inactivity, smoking (especially in diabetics), excessive alcohol intake are the contributing unhealthy life style choices.
*Being overweight or obese can be a risk factor in elevating the LDL cholesterol levels.
*Being overweight or obese can be a risk factor in elevating the LDL cholesterol levels.<ref name="Kesaniemi-">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kesaniemi | first1 = YA. | last2 = Grundy | first2 = SM. | title = Increased low density lipoprotein production associated with obesity. | journal = Arteriosclerosis | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 170-7 | month =  | year =  | doi =  | PMID = 6838434 }}</ref>
*Type 2 diabetes either by itself or along with obesity, poses a significant risk for high LDL levels and heart disease.
*[[Type 2 diabetes]] either by itself or along with obesity, poses a significant risk for high LDL levels and heart disease.<ref name="Harris-1991">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Harris | first1 = MI. | title = Hypercholesterolemia in diabetes and glucose intolerance in the U.S. population. | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 366-74 | month = May | year = 1991 | doi =  | PMID = 2060448 }}</ref>
*Malnutrition and their increased oxidative stress can be risk factors for high LDL levels and atherosclerosis.<ref name="Rao-2008">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Rao | first1 = P. | last2 = Reddy | first2 = GC. | last3 = Kanagasabapathy | first3 = AS. | title = Malnutrition-inflammation-atherosclerosis syndrome in Chronic Kidney disease. | journal = Indian J Clin Biochem | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 209-17 | month = Jul | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1007/s12291-008-0048-9 | PMID = 23105756 }}</ref>
sease. | journal = Indian J Clin Biochem | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 209-17 | month = Jul | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1007/s12291-008-0048-9 | PMID = 23105756 }}</ref>
*Pregnancy can significantly increase LDL along with TG, total cholesterol and HDL.<ref name="Emet-2013">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Emet | first1 = T. | last2 = Ustüner | first2 = I. | last3 = Güven | first3 = SG. | last4 = Balık | first4 = G. | last5 = Ural | first5 = UM. | last6 = Tekin | first6 = YB. | last7 = Sentürk | first7 = S. | last8 = Sahin | first8 = FK. | last9 = Avşar | first9 = AF. | title = Plasma lipids and lipoproteins during pregnancy and related pregnancy outcomes. | journal = Arch Gynecol Obstet | volume = 288 | issue = 1 | pages = 49-55 | month = Jul | year = 2013 | doi = 10.1007/s00404-013-2750-y | PMID = 23400357 }}</ref>
*[[Pregnancy]] can significantly increase LDL along with TG, total cholesterol and HDL.<ref name="Emet-2013">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Emet | first1 = T. | last2 = Ustüner | first2 = I. | last3 = Güven | first3 = SG. | last4 = Balık | first4 = G. | last5 = Ural | first5 = UM. | last6 = Tekin | first6 = YB. | last7 = Sentürk | first7 = S. | last8 = Sahin | first8 = FK. | last9 = Avşar | first9 = AF. | title = Plasma lipids and lipoproteins during pregnancy and related pregnancy outcomes. | journal = Arch Gynecol Obstet | volume = 288 | issue = 1 | pages = 49-55 | month = Jul | year = 2013 | doi = 10.1007/s00404-013-2750-y | PMID = 23400357 }}</ref>
*Puberty can predispose to both increase in high LDL level and HDL particle size.<ref name="Kaitosaari-2009">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kaitosaari | first1 = T. | last2 = Simell | first2 = O. | last3 = Viikari | first3 = J. | last4 = Raitakari | first4 = O. | last5 = Siltala | first5 = M. | last6 = Hakanen | first6 = M. | last7 = Leino | first7 = A. | last8 = Jokinen | first8 = E. | last9 = Rönnemaa | first9 = T. | title = Tracking and determinants of LDL particle size in healthy children from 7 to 11 years of age: the STRIP Study. | journal = Eur J Pediatr | volume = 168 | issue = 5 | pages = 531-9 | month = May | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-008-0780-4 | PMID = 18604555 }}</ref><ref name="Chen-2009">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Chen | first1 = TJ. | last2 = Ji | first2 = CY. | last3 = Hu | first3 = YH. | title = Genetic and environmental influences on serum lipids and the effects of puberty: a Chinese twin study. | journal = Acta Paediatr | volume = 98 | issue = 6 | pages = 1029-36 | month = Jun | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01257.x | PMID = 19292833 }}</ref>
*[[Puberty]] can predispose to both increase in LDL level and LDL particle size.<ref name="Kaitosaari-2009">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kaitosaari | first1 = T. | last2 = Simell | first2 = O. | last3 = Viikari | first3 = J. | last4 = Raitakari | first4 = O. | last5 = Siltala | first5 = M. | last6 = Hakanen | first6 = M. | last7 = Leino | first7 = A. | last8 = Jokinen | first8 = E. | last9 = Rönnemaa | first9 = T. | title = Tracking and determinants of LDL particle size in healthy children from 7 to 11 years of age: the STRIP Study. | journal = Eur J Pediatr | volume = 168 | issue = 5 | pages = 531-9 | month = May | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-008-0780-4 | PMID = 18604555 }}</ref><ref name="Chen-2009">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Chen | first1 = TJ. | last2 = Ji | first2 = CY. | last3 = Hu | first3 = YH. | title = Genetic and environmental influences on serum lipids and the effects of puberty: a Chinese twin study. | journal = Acta Paediatr | volume = 98 | issue = 6 | pages = 1029-36 | month = Jun | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01257.x | PMID = 19292833 }}</ref>
 
==Less Common Risk Factors==
[[Malnutrition]] and their increased oxidative stress can be a less common risk factor for high LDL levels and atherosclerosis.<ref name="Rao-2008">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Rao | first1 = P. | last2 = Reddy | first2 = GC. | last3 = Kanagasabapathy | first3 = AS. | title = Malnutrition-inflammation-atherosclerosis syndrome in Chronic Kidney di
        
        
==References==
==References==

Revision as of 21:50, 25 September 2013

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Vendhan Ramanujam M.B.B.S [2]

Overview

The risk factors which can influence the development of high LDL, but do not cause its development directly can be factors like genetic predisposition, aging and unhealthy life style choices.

Common Risk Factors

The common risk factors that contribute to high LDL level are

  • Genetic predisposition plays a major role in determining a persons blood cholesterol level. Genetic factors and family history are the primary contributing factors to high LDL levels and it mostly has a polygenic mechanism that might add to the variable penetrance of the disorder.[1]
  • Aging might increase the risk of dyslipidemia. Men aged 45 years or older and women aged 55 years or older are at increased risk of having high LDL levels.[2][3]
  • Before the age of menopause, women have lower LDL levels than men of the same age. But after the age of menopause, women's LDL levels tend to rise and thus women of post menopausal age group carry the risk of developing high LDL disorder.[4][5]
  • Life style choices have also been demonstrated as significant risk factors for developing high LDL during the adulthood.[6] High trans fat and saturated fat diet, physical inactivity, smoking (especially in diabetics), excessive alcohol intake are the contributing unhealthy life style choices.
  • Being overweight or obese can be a risk factor in elevating the LDL cholesterol levels.[7]
  • Type 2 diabetes either by itself or along with obesity, poses a significant risk for high LDL levels and heart disease.[8]

sease. | journal = Indian J Clin Biochem | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 209-17 | month = Jul | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1007/s12291-008-0048-9 | PMID = 23105756 }}</ref>

  • Pregnancy can significantly increase LDL along with TG, total cholesterol and HDL.[9]
  • Puberty can predispose to both increase in LDL level and LDL particle size.[10][11]

Less Common Risk Factors

Malnutrition and their increased oxidative stress can be a less common risk factor for high LDL levels and atherosclerosis.<ref name="Rao-2008">{{Cite journal | last1 = Rao | first1 = P. | last2 = Reddy | first2 = GC. | last3 = Kanagasabapathy | first3 = AS. | title = Malnutrition-inflammation-atherosclerosis syndrome in Chronic Kidney di

References

  1. ↑ Talmud, PJ.; Shah, S.; Whittall, R.; Futema, M.; Howard, P.; Cooper, JA.; Harrison, SC.; Li, K.; Drenos, F. (2013). "Use of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol gene score to distinguish patients with polygenic and monogenic familial hypercholesterolaemia: a case-control study". Lancet. 381 (9874): 1293–301. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62127-8. PMID 23433573. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ Félix-Redondo, FJ.; Grau, M.; Fernández-Bergés, D. (2013). "Cholesterol and cardiovascular disease in the elderly. Facts and gaps". Aging Dis. 4 (3): 154–69. PMID 23730531. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Parini, P.; Angelin, B.; Rudling, M. (1999). "Cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism in aging: reversal of hypercholesterolemia by growth hormone treatment in old rats". Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 19 (4): 832–9. PMID 10195906. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Lee, JS.; Hayashi, K.; Mishra, G.; Yasui, T.; Kubota, T.; Mizunuma, H. (2013). "Independent association between age at natural menopause and hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus: Japan nurses' health study". J Atheroscler Thromb. 20 (2): 161–9. PMID 23079582. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ Honjo, H.; Tanaka, K.; Urabe, M.; Naitoh, K.; Ogino, Y.; Yamamoto, T.; Okada, H. "Menopause and hyperlipidemia: pravastatin lowers lipid levels without decreasing endogenous estrogens". Clin Ther. 14 (5): 699–707. PMID 1345259.
  6. ↑ Magnussen, CG.; Thomson, R.; Cleland, VJ.; Ukoumunne, OC.; Dwyer, T.; Venn, A. (2011). "Factors affecting the stability of blood lipid and lipoprotein levels from youth to adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 165 (1): 68–76. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.246. PMID 21199983. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Kesaniemi, YA.; Grundy, SM. "Increased low density lipoprotein production associated with obesity". Arteriosclerosis. 3 (2): 170–7. PMID 6838434.
  8. ↑ Harris, MI. (1991). "Hypercholesterolemia in diabetes and glucose intolerance in the U.S. population". Diabetes Care. 14 (5): 366–74. PMID 2060448. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ↑ Emet, T.; Ustüner, I.; Güven, SG.; Balık, G.; Ural, UM.; Tekin, YB.; Sentürk, S.; Sahin, FK.; Avşar, AF. (2013). "Plasma lipids and lipoproteins during pregnancy and related pregnancy outcomes". Arch Gynecol Obstet. 288 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1007/s00404-013-2750-y. PMID 23400357. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ Kaitosaari, T.; Simell, O.; Viikari, J.; Raitakari, O.; Siltala, M.; Hakanen, M.; Leino, A.; Jokinen, E.; Rönnemaa, T. (2009). "Tracking and determinants of LDL particle size in healthy children from 7 to 11 years of age: the STRIP Study". Eur J Pediatr. 168 (5): 531–9. doi:10.1007/s00431-008-0780-4. PMID 18604555. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Chen, TJ.; Ji, CY.; Hu, YH. (2009). "Genetic and environmental influences on serum lipids and the effects of puberty: a Chinese twin study". Acta Paediatr. 98 (6): 1029–36. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01257.x. PMID 19292833. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)


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