Red eye resident survival guide (pediatrics): Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
==Overview==
[[Red eye]] is one of the most common [[ophthalmologic]] [[conditions]] in the primary care setting in children. [[Inflammation]] of almost any part of the eye, including the [[lacrimal glands]] and [[eyelids]], or faulty tear film can lead to [[red eye]]. [[Primary care physician|Primary care]] physicians often effectively manage [[red eye]], although knowing when to refer patients to an [[ophthalmologist]] is crucial, baseline [[ophthalmological]] tests, and accompanying manifestations can narrow down the differential [[diagnosis]]. The duration and laterality of [[symptoms]] (unilateral- vs. bilateral) and the intensity of [[pain]] are the main [[criteria]] allowing the differentiation of non-critical changes that can be cared for a [[General practitioners|general practitioner]] from [[diseases]] calling for an elective referral to an [[ophthalmologist]] and eye emergencies requiring urgent [[ophthalmic]] surgery.<ref name="LambertChristiansen2019">{{cite journal|last1=Lambert|first1=Jennifer E.|last2=Christiansen|first2=Stephen P.|last3=Peeler|first3=Crandall E.|title=Don’t Miss This! Red Flags in the Pediatric Eye Exam: Pupils|journal=Journal of Binocular Vision and Ocular Motility|volume=69|issue=3|year=2019|pages=102–105|issn=2576-117X|doi=10.1080/2576117X.2019.1609893}}</ref>  
[[Red eye]] is one of the most common [[ophthalmologic]] [[conditions]] in the [[primary care]] setting in children. [[Inflammation]] of almost any part of the eye, including the [[lacrimal glands]] and [[eyelids]], or faulty tear film can lead to [[red eye]]. [[Primary care physician|Primary care]] [[physician]]<nowiki/>s often effectively manage [[red eye]], although knowing when to refer [[patients]] to an [[ophthalmologist]] is crucial, baseline [[ophthalmological]] tests, and accompanying manifestations can narrow down the differential [[diagnosis]]. The duration and laterality of [[symptoms]] (unilateral- vs. bilateral) and the intensity of [[pain]] are the main [[criteria]] allowing the differentiation of non-critical changes that can be cared for a [[General practitioners|general practitioner]] from [[diseases]] calling for an elective referral to an [[ophthalmologist]] and eye emergencies requiring urgent [[ophthalmic]] surgery.<ref name="LambertChristiansen2019">{{cite journal|last1=Lambert|first1=Jennifer E.|last2=Christiansen|first2=Stephen P.|last3=Peeler|first3=Crandall E.|title=Don’t Miss This! Red Flags in the Pediatric Eye Exam: Pupils|journal=Journal of Binocular Vision and Ocular Motility|volume=69|issue=3|year=2019|pages=102–105|issn=2576-117X|doi=10.1080/2576117X.2019.1609893}}</ref>  




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Life-threatening causes include [[conditions]] that could lead to death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.<ref name="pmidPMID: 16564769">{{cite journal| author=Wirbelauer C| title=Management of the red eye for the primary care physician. | journal=Am J Med | volume= 119 | issue= 4 | pages= 302-6 | pmid=PMID: 16564769 | doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.065 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16564769  }}</ref>
Life-threatening causes include [[conditions]] that could lead to death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.<ref name="pmidPMID: 16564769">{{cite journal| author=Wirbelauer C| title=Management of the red eye for the primary care physician. | journal=Am J Med | volume= 119 | issue= 4 | pages= 302-6 | pmid=PMID: 16564769 | doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.065 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16564769  }}</ref>


*Globe ruptures or perforations
*Globe ruptures or [[perforation]]<nowiki/>s
*[[Intraocular]] [[infections]]
*[[Intraocular]] [[infections]]
*Carotid–cavernous sinus fistula
*Carotid–[[cavernous sinus]] [[fistula]]


===Common Causes<ref name="pmid285301802">Frings A, Geerling G, Schargus M (2017) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28530180 Red Eye: A Guide for Non-specialists.] ''Dtsch Arztebl Int'' 114 (17):302-312. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302 DOI:10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/: 28530180 : 28530180]</ref><ref name="pmid27304768">Pflipsen M, Massaquoi M, Wolf S (2016) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27304768 Evaluation of the Painful Eye.] ''Am Fam Physician'' 93 (12):991-8. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 27304768 PMID: 27304768]</ref><ref name="pmid24852155">Wong MM, Anninger W (2014) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24852155 The pediatric red eye.] ''Pediatr Clin North Am'' 61 (3):591-606. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2014.03.011 DOI:10.1016/j.pcl.2014.03.011] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 24852155 PMID: 24852155]</ref><ref name="pmid16564769">Wirbelauer C (2006) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16564769 Management of the red eye for the primary care physician.] ''Am J Med'' 119 (4):302-6. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.065 DOI:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.065] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 16564769 PMID: 16564769]</ref><ref name="IsmailAdel2020">{{cite journal|last1=Ismail|first1=M.|last2=Adel|first2=A.|title=Prediction of  
===Common Causes<ref name="pmid285301802">Frings A, Geerling G, Schargus M (2017) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28530180 Red Eye: A Guide for Non-specialists.] ''Dtsch Arztebl Int'' 114 (17):302-312. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302 DOI:10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/: 28530180 : 28530180]</ref><ref name="pmid27304768">Pflipsen M, Massaquoi M, Wolf S (2016) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27304768 Evaluation of the Painful Eye.] ''Am Fam Physician'' 93 (12):991-8. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 27304768 PMID: 27304768]</ref><ref name="pmid24852155">Wong MM, Anninger W (2014) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24852155 The pediatric red eye.] ''Pediatr Clin North Am'' 61 (3):591-606. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2014.03.011 DOI:10.1016/j.pcl.2014.03.011] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 24852155 PMID: 24852155]</ref><ref name="pmid16564769">Wirbelauer C (2006) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16564769 Management of the red eye for the primary care physician.] ''Am J Med'' 119 (4):302-6. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.065 DOI:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.065] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 16564769 PMID: 16564769]</ref><ref name="IsmailAdel2020">{{cite journal|last1=Ismail|first1=M.|last2=Adel|first2=A.|title=Prediction of  
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*[[Iritis]]/[[iridocyclitis]]
*[[Iritis]]/[[iridocyclitis]]
*[[Anterior uveitis]]
*[[Anterior uveitis]]
*Posterior uveitis ([[choroiditis]])
*Posterior [[Uveitis, posterior|uveitis]] ([[choroiditis]])
*[[Endophthalmitis]]
*[[Endophthalmitis]]
*[[Dacrocystitis]]
*[[Dacrocystitis]]
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*[[Subconjunctival hemorrhage]]
*[[Subconjunctival hemorrhage]]
*[[Allergic conjunctivitis]]
*[[Allergic conjunctivitis]]
*Non-infectious (kerato-)conjunctivitis
*Non-infectious ([[Keratoconjunctivitis|kerato]])[[conjunctivitis]]
*[[Contact lens]]
*[[Contact lens]]
*[[Blunt (cigar)|Blunt]] or [[penetrating trauma]]
*[[Blunt (cigar)|Blunt]] or [[penetrating trauma]]
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==FIRE: Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation==
==FIRE: Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation==
Patients with the [[primary symptom]] of a [[red eye]] are commonly seen in [[pediatric]] [[primary care]] clinics. The differential diagnoses of a [[red eye]] are broad, but with a succinct history and [[physical examination]], the diagnosis can be readily identified in many patients. Identifying conditions that threaten vision and understanding the [[urgency]] of referral to an [[ophthalmologist]] is paramount. Some [[systemic diseases]] such as [[leukemia]], [[sarcoidosis]], and [[juvenile idiopathic arthritis]] can present with the chief symptom of a [[red eye]]. Finally, [[trauma]], ranging from mild to severe, often [[precipitates]] an office visit with a [[red eye]], and thus understanding the signs that raise concern for a [[ruptured globe]] is essential  . In the [[primary care]] setting, with a focused [[History and Physical examination|history]], a few simple examination techniques, and an appreciation of the differential diagnosis, one can feel confident in managing patients with acute [[red eyes]].<ref name="pmid26796813">Petersen EE, Staples JE, Meaney-Delman D, Fischer M, Ellington SR, Callaghan WM | display-authors=etal (2016) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26796813 Interim Guidelines for Pregnant Women During a Zika Virus Outbreak--United States, 2016.] ''MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep'' 65 (2):30-3. [http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6502e1 DOI:10.15585/mmwr.mm6502e1] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 26796813 PMID: 26796813]</ref><ref name="SinghGalvis2018">{{cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=Gagandeep|last2=Galvis|first2=Alvaro|last3=Das|first3=Samrat|title=Case 1: Eye Discharge in a 10-day-old Neonate Born by Cesarean Delivery|journal=Pediatrics in Review|volume=39|issue=4|year=2018|pages=210–210|issn=0191-9601|doi=10.1542/pir.2016-0090}}</ref><ref name="AzariBarney2013">{{cite journal|last1=Azari|first1=Amir A.|last2=Barney|first2=Neal P.|title=Conjunctivitis|journal=JAMA|volume=310|issue=16|year=2013|pages=1721|issn=0098-7484|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.280318}}</ref><ref name="BieloryO’Brien2012">{{cite journal|last1=Bielory|first1=Brett P.|last2=O’Brien|first2=Terrence P.|last3=Bielory|first3=Leonard|title=Management of seasonal allergic conjunctivitis: guide to therapy|journal=Acta Ophthalmologica|volume=90|issue=5|year=2012|pages=399–407|issn=1755375X|doi=10.1111/j.1755-3768.2011.02272.x}}</ref><ref name="CheungChee2012">{{cite journal|last1=Cheung|first1=Chui Ming Gemmy|last2=Chee|first2=Soon-Phaik|title=Posterior Scleritis in Children: Clinical Features and Treatment|journal=Ophthalmology|volume=119|issue=1|year=2012|pages=59–65|issn=01616420|doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.09.030}}</ref><ref name="GuptaDhawan2010">{{cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=Noopur|last2=Dhawan|first2=Anuradha|last3=Beri|first3=Sarita|last4=D'souza|first4=Pamela|title=Clinical spectrum of pediatric blepharokeratoconjunctivitis|journal=Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus|volume=14|issue=6|year=2010|pages=527–529|issn=10918531|doi=10.1016/j.jaapos.2010.09.013}}</ref><ref name="Kaufman2011">{{cite journal|last1=Kaufman|first1=Herbert E|title=Adenovirus advances: new diagnostic and therapeutic options|journal=Current Opinion in Ophthalmology|volume=22|issue=4|year=2011|pages=290–293|issn=1040-8738|doi=10.1097/ICU.0b013e3283477cb5}}</ref><ref name="KhajaPogrebniak2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khaja|first1=Wassia A.|last2=Pogrebniak|first2=Alexander E.|last3=Bolling|first3=James P.|title=Combined orbital proptosis and exudative retinal detachment as initial manifestations of acute myeloid leukemia|journal=Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus|volume=19|issue=5|year=2015|pages=479–482|issn=10918531|doi=10.1016/j.jaapos.2015.05.018}}</ref><ref name="pmid24906667">LaMattina K, Thompson L (2014) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24906667 Pediatric conjunctivitis.] ''Dis Mon'' 60 (6):231-8. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.disamonth.2014.03.002 DOI:10.1016/j.disamonth.2014.03.002] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 24906667 PMID: 24906667]</ref><ref name="pmid10">Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes.] ''Biochem Pharmacol'' 24 (17):1639-41. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/https://doi.org/10.3109/02713683.2014.964419 https://doi.org/10.3109/02713683.2014.964419]</ref><ref name="pmid15993231">Rose PW, Harnden A, Brueggemann AB, Perera R, Sheikh A, Crook D | display-authors=etal (2005) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15993231 Chloramphenicol treatment for acute infective conjunctivitis in children in primary care: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial.] ''Lancet'' 366 (9479):37-43. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66709-8 DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66709-8] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 15993231 PMID: 15993231]</ref><ref name="pmid26517055">Tappeiner C, Klotsche J, Schenck S, Niewerth M, Minden K, Heiligenhaus A (2015) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26517055 Temporal change in prevalence and complications of uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis:data from a cross-sectional analysis of a prospective nationwide study.] ''Clin Exp Rheumatol'' 33 (6):936-44. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 26517055 PMID: 26517055]</ref><ref name="pmid22071229">Teo L, Mehta JS, Htoon HM, Tan DT (2012) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22071229 Severity of pediatric blepharokeratoconjunctivitis in Asian eyes.] ''Am J Ophthalmol'' 153 (3):564-570.e1. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2011.08.037 DOI:10.1016/j.ajo.2011.08.037] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 22071229 PMID: 22071229]</ref><ref name="pmid23177360">Wieringa WG, Wieringa JE, ten Dam-van Loon NH, Los LI (2013) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23177360 Visual outcome, treatment results, and prognostic factors in patients with scleritis.] ''Ophthalmology'' 120 (2):379-86. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.08.005 DOI:10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.08.005] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 23177360 PMID: 23177360]</ref><ref name="pmid21705879">Wong VW, Lai TY, Chi SC, Lam DS (2011) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21705879 Pediatric ocular surface infections: a 5-year review of demographics, clinical features, risk factors, microbiological results, and treatment.] ''Cornea'' 30 (9):995-1002. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ICO.0b013e31820770f4 DOI:10.1097/ICO.0b013e31820770f4] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 21705879 PMID: 21705879]</ref>, or eye emergencies requiring urgent [[ophthalmic]] surgery.<ref name="pmid28530180">Frings A, Geerling G, Schargus M (2017) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28530180 Red Eye: A Guide for Non-specialists.] ''Dtsch Arztebl Int'' 114 (17):302-312. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302 DOI:10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/: 28530180 : 28530180]</ref><ref name="pmid20082509">Cronau H, Kankanala RR, Mauger T (2010) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20082509 Diagnosis and management of red eye in primary care.] ''Am Fam Physician'' 81 (2):137-44. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 20082509 PMID: 20082509]</ref>
[[Patient]]<nowiki/>s with the [[primary symptom]] of a [[red eye]] are commonly seen in [[pediatric]] [[primary care]] clinics. The differential diagnoses of a [[red eye]] are broad, but with a succinct history and [[physical examination]], the diagnosis can be readily identified in many [[patient]]<nowiki/>s. Identifying conditions that threaten vision and understanding the [[urgency]] of referral to an [[ophthalmologist]] is paramount. Some [[systemic diseases]] such as [[leukemia]], [[sarcoidosis]], and [[juvenile idiopathic arthritis]] can present with the chief symptom of a [[red eye]]. Finally, [[trauma]], ranging from mild to severe, often [[precipitates]] an office visit with a [[red eye]], and thus understanding the signs that raise concern for a [[ruptured globe]] is essential  . In the [[primary care]] setting, with a focused [[History and Physical examination|history]], a few simple examination techniques, and an appreciation of the differential diagnosis, one can feel confident in managing patients with acute [[red eyes]].<ref name="pmid26796813">Petersen EE, Staples JE, Meaney-Delman D, Fischer M, Ellington SR, Callaghan WM | display-authors=etal (2016) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26796813 Interim Guidelines for Pregnant Women During a Zika Virus Outbreak--United States, 2016.] ''MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep'' 65 (2):30-3. [http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6502e1 DOI:10.15585/mmwr.mm6502e1] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 26796813 PMID: 26796813]</ref><ref name="SinghGalvis2018">{{cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=Gagandeep|last2=Galvis|first2=Alvaro|last3=Das|first3=Samrat|title=Case 1: Eye Discharge in a 10-day-old Neonate Born by Cesarean Delivery|journal=Pediatrics in Review|volume=39|issue=4|year=2018|pages=210–210|issn=0191-9601|doi=10.1542/pir.2016-0090}}</ref><ref name="AzariBarney2013">{{cite journal|last1=Azari|first1=Amir A.|last2=Barney|first2=Neal P.|title=Conjunctivitis|journal=JAMA|volume=310|issue=16|year=2013|pages=1721|issn=0098-7484|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.280318}}</ref><ref name="BieloryO’Brien2012">{{cite journal|last1=Bielory|first1=Brett P.|last2=O’Brien|first2=Terrence P.|last3=Bielory|first3=Leonard|title=Management of seasonal allergic conjunctivitis: guide to therapy|journal=Acta Ophthalmologica|volume=90|issue=5|year=2012|pages=399–407|issn=1755375X|doi=10.1111/j.1755-3768.2011.02272.x}}</ref><ref name="CheungChee2012">{{cite journal|last1=Cheung|first1=Chui Ming Gemmy|last2=Chee|first2=Soon-Phaik|title=Posterior Scleritis in Children: Clinical Features and Treatment|journal=Ophthalmology|volume=119|issue=1|year=2012|pages=59–65|issn=01616420|doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.09.030}}</ref><ref name="GuptaDhawan2010">{{cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=Noopur|last2=Dhawan|first2=Anuradha|last3=Beri|first3=Sarita|last4=D'souza|first4=Pamela|title=Clinical spectrum of pediatric blepharokeratoconjunctivitis|journal=Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus|volume=14|issue=6|year=2010|pages=527–529|issn=10918531|doi=10.1016/j.jaapos.2010.09.013}}</ref><ref name="Kaufman2011">{{cite journal|last1=Kaufman|first1=Herbert E|title=Adenovirus advances: new diagnostic and therapeutic options|journal=Current Opinion in Ophthalmology|volume=22|issue=4|year=2011|pages=290–293|issn=1040-8738|doi=10.1097/ICU.0b013e3283477cb5}}</ref><ref name="KhajaPogrebniak2015">{{cite journal|last1=Khaja|first1=Wassia A.|last2=Pogrebniak|first2=Alexander E.|last3=Bolling|first3=James P.|title=Combined orbital proptosis and exudative retinal detachment as initial manifestations of acute myeloid leukemia|journal=Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus|volume=19|issue=5|year=2015|pages=479–482|issn=10918531|doi=10.1016/j.jaapos.2015.05.018}}</ref><ref name="pmid24906667">LaMattina K, Thompson L (2014) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24906667 Pediatric conjunctivitis.] ''Dis Mon'' 60 (6):231-8. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.disamonth.2014.03.002 DOI:10.1016/j.disamonth.2014.03.002] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 24906667 PMID: 24906667]</ref><ref name="pmid10">Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes.] ''Biochem Pharmacol'' 24 (17):1639-41. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/https://doi.org/10.3109/02713683.2014.964419 https://doi.org/10.3109/02713683.2014.964419]</ref><ref name="pmid15993231">Rose PW, Harnden A, Brueggemann AB, Perera R, Sheikh A, Crook D | display-authors=etal (2005) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15993231 Chloramphenicol treatment for acute infective conjunctivitis in children in primary care: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial.] ''Lancet'' 366 (9479):37-43. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66709-8 DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66709-8] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 15993231 PMID: 15993231]</ref><ref name="pmid26517055">Tappeiner C, Klotsche J, Schenck S, Niewerth M, Minden K, Heiligenhaus A (2015) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26517055 Temporal change in prevalence and complications of uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis:data from a cross-sectional analysis of a prospective nationwide study.] ''Clin Exp Rheumatol'' 33 (6):936-44. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 26517055 PMID: 26517055]</ref><ref name="pmid22071229">Teo L, Mehta JS, Htoon HM, Tan DT (2012) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22071229 Severity of pediatric blepharokeratoconjunctivitis in Asian eyes.] ''Am J Ophthalmol'' 153 (3):564-570.e1. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2011.08.037 DOI:10.1016/j.ajo.2011.08.037] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 22071229 PMID: 22071229]</ref><ref name="pmid23177360">Wieringa WG, Wieringa JE, ten Dam-van Loon NH, Los LI (2013) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23177360 Visual outcome, treatment results, and prognostic factors in patients with scleritis.] ''Ophthalmology'' 120 (2):379-86. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.08.005 DOI:10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.08.005] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 23177360 PMID: 23177360]</ref><ref name="pmid21705879">Wong VW, Lai TY, Chi SC, Lam DS (2011) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21705879 Pediatric ocular surface infections: a 5-year review of demographics, clinical features, risk factors, microbiological results, and treatment.] ''Cornea'' 30 (9):995-1002. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ICO.0b013e31820770f4 DOI:10.1097/ICO.0b013e31820770f4] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 21705879 PMID: 21705879]</ref>, or eye emergencies requiring urgent [[ophthalmic]] surgery.<ref name="pmid28530180">Frings A, Geerling G, Schargus M (2017) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28530180 Red Eye: A Guide for Non-specialists.] ''Dtsch Arztebl Int'' 114 (17):302-312. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302 DOI:10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/: 28530180 : 28530180]</ref><ref name="pmid20082509">Cronau H, Kankanala RR, Mauger T (2010) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20082509 Diagnosis and management of red eye in primary care.] ''Am Fam Physician'' 81 (2):137-44. PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 20082509 PMID: 20082509]</ref>
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==Complete Diagnostic Approach==
==Complete Diagnostic Approach==
Localized, diffused and perikeratic injection. <ref name="pmidPMID: 18506971">{{cite journal| author=Sauer A, Speeg-Schatz C, Bourcier T| title=[Red eye in children]. | journal=Rev Prat | year= 2008 | volume= 58 | issue= 4 | pages= 353-7 | pmid=PMID: 18506971 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18506971  }}</ref>
[[Localized disease|Localized]], diffused and peri keratic injection. <ref name="pmidPMID: 18506971">{{cite journal| author=Sauer A, Speeg-Schatz C, Bourcier T| title=[Red eye in children]. | journal=Rev Prat | year= 2008 | volume= 58 | issue= 4 | pages= 353-7 | pmid=PMID: 18506971 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18506971  }}</ref>


Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of [[red eye]] according to the Nelson Essentials of Pediatrics guidelines. <ref name="pmid12592117">Teoh DL, Reynolds S (2003) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12592117 Diagnosis and management of pediatric conjunctivitis.] ''Pediatr Emerg Care'' 19 (1):48-55. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006565-200302000-00014 DOI:10.1097/00006565-200302000-00014] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 12592117 PMID: 12592117]</ref>
Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of [[red eye]] according to the Nelson Essentials of Pediatrics guidelines. <ref name="pmid12592117">Teoh DL, Reynolds S (2003) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12592117 Diagnosis and management of pediatric conjunctivitis.] ''Pediatr Emerg Care'' 19 (1):48-55. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006565-200302000-00014 DOI:10.1097/00006565-200302000-00014] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/PMID: 12592117 PMID: 12592117]</ref>
Line 134: Line 134:
*Mild [[allergic conjunctivitis]] may be treated with an over-the-counter [[antihistamine]]/[[vasoconstrictor]] agent, or with a more effective second-generation [[topical]] [[Histamine antagonist|histamine H1 receptor antagonist]].<ref name="pmidPMID: 30366797">{{cite journal| author=Varu DM, Rhee MK, Akpek EK, Amescua G, Farid M, Garcia-Ferrer FJ | display-authors=etal| title=Conjunctivitis Preferred Practice Pattern®. | journal=Ophthalmology | year= 2019 | volume= 126 | issue= 1 | pages= P94-P169 | pmid=PMID: 30366797 | doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.10.020 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30366797  }}</ref><ref name="pmidPMID: 30366798">{{cite journal| author=Akpek EK, Amescua G, Farid M, Garcia-Ferrer FJ, Lin A, Rhee MK | display-authors=etal| title=Dry Eye Syndrome Preferred Practice Pattern®. | journal=Ophthalmology | year= 2019 | volume= 126 | issue= 1 | pages= P286-P334 | pmid=PMID: 30366798 | doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.10.023 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30366798  }}</ref>
*Mild [[allergic conjunctivitis]] may be treated with an over-the-counter [[antihistamine]]/[[vasoconstrictor]] agent, or with a more effective second-generation [[topical]] [[Histamine antagonist|histamine H1 receptor antagonist]].<ref name="pmidPMID: 30366797">{{cite journal| author=Varu DM, Rhee MK, Akpek EK, Amescua G, Farid M, Garcia-Ferrer FJ | display-authors=etal| title=Conjunctivitis Preferred Practice Pattern®. | journal=Ophthalmology | year= 2019 | volume= 126 | issue= 1 | pages= P94-P169 | pmid=PMID: 30366797 | doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.10.020 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30366797  }}</ref><ref name="pmidPMID: 30366798">{{cite journal| author=Akpek EK, Amescua G, Farid M, Garcia-Ferrer FJ, Lin A, Rhee MK | display-authors=etal| title=Dry Eye Syndrome Preferred Practice Pattern®. | journal=Ophthalmology | year= 2019 | volume= 126 | issue= 1 | pages= P286-P334 | pmid=PMID: 30366798 | doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.10.023 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30366798  }}</ref>
*[[Anti-inflammatory]] agents (e.g., topical [[cyclosporine]]), [[topical]] [[corticosteroids]], and systemic [[omega-3 fatty acids]] are appropriate therapies for moderate dry eye.
*[[Anti-inflammatory]] agents (e.g., topical [[cyclosporine]]), [[topical]] [[corticosteroids]], and systemic [[omega-3 fatty acids]] are appropriate therapies for moderate dry eye.
*Patients with chronic blepharitis who do not respond adequately to eyelid hygiene and topical antibiotics may benefit from an oral tetracycline or doxycycline.
*[[Patient]]<nowiki/>s with chronic [[blepharitis]] who do not respond adequately to [[eyelid]] [[hygiene]] and [[topical]] [[antibiotics]] may benefit from an oral [[Tetracycline (oral)|tetracycline]] or [[doxycycline]].


==Do's==
==Do's==


*The most important task is to detect potentially serious ocular presentations to the immediate referral of the patient to an [[ophthalmologist]] and treatment.
*The most important task is to detect potentially serious ocular presentations to the immediate referral of the patient to an [[ophthalmologist]] and [[treatment]].
*[[Conditions]] requiring referral to an [[ophthalmologist]] are [[orbital cellulitis]], [[hyphaema]], [[scleritis]], [[iritis]] or [[uveitis]], acute angle closure [[glaucoma]], and corneal abrasions (unless very superficial).<ref name="BalHollingworth2005">{{cite journal|last1=Bal|first1=Sharon K|last2=Hollingworth|first2=Gary R|title=Red eye|journal=BMJ|volume=331|issue=7514|year=2005|pages=438|issn=0959-8138|doi=10.1136/bmj.331.7514.438}}</ref>
*[[Conditions]] requiring referral to an [[ophthalmologist]] are [[orbital cellulitis]], [[hyphaema]], [[scleritis]], [[iritis]] or [[uveitis]], acute angle closure [[glaucoma]], and [[corneal abrasion]]<nowiki/>s (unless very [[superficial]]).<ref name="BalHollingworth2005">{{cite journal|last1=Bal|first1=Sharon K|last2=Hollingworth|first2=Gary R|title=Red eye|journal=BMJ|volume=331|issue=7514|year=2005|pages=438|issn=0959-8138|doi=10.1136/bmj.331.7514.438}}</ref>
*Be cautious when prescribing [[steroids]]: You should exclude the possibility of [[herpetic]] [[keratitis]].
*Be cautious when prescribing [[steroids]]: You should exclude the possibility of [[herpetic]] [[keratitis]].
*[[Ocular]] [[pain]]<ref name="AguileraChen2016">{{cite journal|last1=Aguilera|first1=Zenia P.|last2=Chen|first2=Pauline L.|title=Eye Pain in Children|journal=Pediatrics in Review|volume=37|issue=10|year=2016|pages=418–425|issn=0191-9601|doi=10.1542/pir.2015-0096}}</ref><ref name="AguileraChen20162">{{cite journal|last1=Aguilera|first1=Zenia P.|last2=Chen|first2=Pauline L.|title=Eye Pain in Children|journal=Pediatrics in Review|volume=37|issue=10|year=2016|pages=418–425|issn=0191-9601|doi=10.1542/pir.2015-0096}}</ref> and change in [[vision]] are two extremely specific warning signs of eye pathology, and unless doctor are absolutely certain of a [[benign]] diagnosis doctor must refer him for [[Ophthalmologicals|ophthalmological]] assessment if he has these.
*[[Ocular]] [[pain]]<ref name="AguileraChen2016">{{cite journal|last1=Aguilera|first1=Zenia P.|last2=Chen|first2=Pauline L.|title=Eye Pain in Children|journal=Pediatrics in Review|volume=37|issue=10|year=2016|pages=418–425|issn=0191-9601|doi=10.1542/pir.2015-0096}}</ref><ref name="AguileraChen20162">{{cite journal|last1=Aguilera|first1=Zenia P.|last2=Chen|first2=Pauline L.|title=Eye Pain in Children|journal=Pediatrics in Review|volume=37|issue=10|year=2016|pages=418–425|issn=0191-9601|doi=10.1542/pir.2015-0096}}</ref> and change in [[vision]] are two extremely specific warning signs of eye pathology, and unless doctor are absolutely certain of a [[benign]] diagnosis doctor must refer him for [[Ophthalmologicals|ophthalmological]] assessment if he has these.

Revision as of 04:55, 24 February 2021


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Eman Alademi, M.D.[2]

Synonyms and keywords: Approach to red eye in children, Red-eye work-up in kids, Red-eye management in children

Red eye resident survival guide (pediatrics) Microchapters
Overview
Causes
FIRE
Diagnosis
Treatment
Do's
Don'ts

Overview

Red eye is one of the most common ophthalmologic conditions in the primary care setting in children. Inflammation of almost any part of the eye, including the lacrimal glands and eyelids, or faulty tear film can lead to red eye. Primary care physicians often effectively manage red eye, although knowing when to refer patients to an ophthalmologist is crucial, baseline ophthalmological tests, and accompanying manifestations can narrow down the differential diagnosis. The duration and laterality of symptoms (unilateral- vs. bilateral) and the intensity of pain are the main criteria allowing the differentiation of non-critical changes that can be cared for a general practitioner from diseases calling for an elective referral to an ophthalmologist and eye emergencies requiring urgent ophthalmic surgery.[1]


Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions that could lead to death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.[2]

Common Causes[3][4][5][6][7]

Infectious[8]

Non-infectious

FIRE: Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation

Patients with the primary symptom of a red eye are commonly seen in pediatric primary care clinics. The differential diagnoses of a red eye are broad, but with a succinct history and physical examination, the diagnosis can be readily identified in many patients. Identifying conditions that threaten vision and understanding the urgency of referral to an ophthalmologist is paramount. Some systemic diseases such as leukemia, sarcoidosis, and juvenile idiopathic arthritis can present with the chief symptom of a red eye. Finally, trauma, ranging from mild to severe, often precipitates an office visit with a red eye, and thus understanding the signs that raise concern for a ruptured globe is essential . In the primary care setting, with a focused history, a few simple examination techniques, and an appreciation of the differential diagnosis, one can feel confident in managing patients with acute red eyes.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23], or eye emergencies requiring urgent ophthalmic surgery.[24][25]

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
History & Physical examination
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Emergency
 
 
 
 
Trauma
 
 
 
 
Systemic disease
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Acute
 
 
 
 
Mild-severe
 
 
 
 
Main symptom of red eye
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Urgent ophthalmologic evaluation
 
 
 
 
Rupture of globe
 
 
 
 
Acute
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Office visit
 
 
 
 
Office visit


Complete Diagnostic Approach

Localized, diffused and peri keratic injection. [26]

Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of red eye according to the Nelson Essentials of Pediatrics guidelines. [27]

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Age group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Neonates
 
 
 
 
Infants and toddlers
 
 
 
School age children
 
 
 
 
School age children and adolescent
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
24 hours
 
<1 week
 
1-2 weeks
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1-5 years
 
 
 
 
Viral conjunctivitis
Allergic conjunctivitis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chemical conjunctivitis
 
Neisseria Ghonorrhea
 
Chlamydia Trachomatis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Herpes Simplex
Varicella Zoster
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Without otitis
 
 
 
With otitis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Haemophilus Influenzae
Streptoccoccus Penumoniae
 
 
 
H. Influenzae
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


Treatment

Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the treatment of Red eye according to the American journal of medicine. [6]


 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Patient with red eye
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Emergency
 
 
 
 
 
Acute conjunctivitis
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chronic blepharitis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Urgent ophthalmic surgery
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Eyelid hygiene
Topical antibiotics
•Oral tetracycline or doxycycline
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Severe
 
 
 
 
Mild
 
 
 
 
Moderate
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Viral
 
Bacterial
 
 
Over the counter
Antihistamine
Vasocontricter agent or with more effective second generation topical histamine H1 receptor antagonist
 
 
 
 
Antiinflammatory agents (eg. topical cyclosporine)
Topical corticosteroids
Systemic omega 3 fatty acids
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Hand washing and meticulous hygiene or normal saline spray
 
Ophthalmic antibiotic such as gentamycin
 
 
 


Do's

Don'ts

  • Do not miss the pupillary exam in the pediatric population is a vital part of any clinician's workup. In the right clinical setting, pupillary abnormalities such as anisocoria, light-near dissociation, an afferent pupillary defect, and paradoxic pupillary constriction in the dark can be red flags that trigger further examination and workup.
  • Through both careful physical examination and detailed history taking and observation, potentially vision- and life-threatening conditions can be detected. [1]

.

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 Lambert, Jennifer E.; Christiansen, Stephen P.; Peeler, Crandall E. (2019). "Don't Miss This! Red Flags in the Pediatric Eye Exam: Pupils". Journal of Binocular Vision and Ocular Motility. 69 (3): 102–105. doi:10.1080/2576117X.2019.1609893. ISSN 2576-117X.
  2. Wirbelauer C. "Management of the red eye for the primary care physician". Am J Med. 119 (4): 302–6. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.065. PMID 16564769 PMID: 16564769 Check |pmid= value (help).
  3. Frings A, Geerling G, Schargus M (2017) Red Eye: A Guide for Non-specialists. Dtsch Arztebl Int 114 (17):302-312. DOI:10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302 PMID: 28530180 : 28530180
  4. Pflipsen M, Massaquoi M, Wolf S (2016) Evaluation of the Painful Eye. Am Fam Physician 93 (12):991-8. PMID: 27304768 PMID: 27304768
  5. Wong MM, Anninger W (2014) The pediatric red eye. Pediatr Clin North Am 61 (3):591-606. DOI:10.1016/j.pcl.2014.03.011 PMID: 24852155 PMID: 24852155
  6. 6.0 6.1 Wirbelauer C (2006) Management of the red eye for the primary care physician. Am J Med 119 (4):302-6. DOI:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.07.065 PMID: 16564769 PMID: 16564769
  7. Ismail, M.; Adel, A. (2020). "Prediction of α -decay chains and cluster radioactivity of 121300–304 and 122302–306 isotopes using the double-folding potential". Physical Review C. 101 (2). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.101.024607. ISSN 2469-9985. line feed character in |title= at position 15 (help)
  8. Høvding, Gunnar (2008). "Acute bacterial conjunctivitis". Acta Ophthalmologica. 86 (1): 5–17. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0420.2007.01006.x. ISSN 1755-375X.
  9. Petersen EE, Staples JE, Meaney-Delman D, Fischer M, Ellington SR, Callaghan WM | display-authors=etal (2016) Interim Guidelines for Pregnant Women During a Zika Virus Outbreak--United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65 (2):30-3. DOI:10.15585/mmwr.mm6502e1 PMID: 26796813 PMID: 26796813
  10. Singh, Gagandeep; Galvis, Alvaro; Das, Samrat (2018). "Case 1: Eye Discharge in a 10-day-old Neonate Born by Cesarean Delivery". Pediatrics in Review. 39 (4): 210–210. doi:10.1542/pir.2016-0090. ISSN 0191-9601.
  11. Azari, Amir A.; Barney, Neal P. (2013). "Conjunctivitis". JAMA. 310 (16): 1721. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.280318. ISSN 0098-7484.
  12. Bielory, Brett P.; O’Brien, Terrence P.; Bielory, Leonard (2012). "Management of seasonal allergic conjunctivitis: guide to therapy". Acta Ophthalmologica. 90 (5): 399–407. doi:10.1111/j.1755-3768.2011.02272.x. ISSN 1755-375X.
  13. Cheung, Chui Ming Gemmy; Chee, Soon-Phaik (2012). "Posterior Scleritis in Children: Clinical Features and Treatment". Ophthalmology. 119 (1): 59–65. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.09.030. ISSN 0161-6420.
  14. Gupta, Noopur; Dhawan, Anuradha; Beri, Sarita; D'souza, Pamela (2010). "Clinical spectrum of pediatric blepharokeratoconjunctivitis". Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 14 (6): 527–529. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2010.09.013. ISSN 1091-8531.
  15. Kaufman, Herbert E (2011). "Adenovirus advances: new diagnostic and therapeutic options". Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 22 (4): 290–293. doi:10.1097/ICU.0b013e3283477cb5. ISSN 1040-8738.
  16. Khaja, Wassia A.; Pogrebniak, Alexander E.; Bolling, James P. (2015). "Combined orbital proptosis and exudative retinal detachment as initial manifestations of acute myeloid leukemia". Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 19 (5): 479–482. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2015.05.018. ISSN 1091-8531.
  17. LaMattina K, Thompson L (2014) Pediatric conjunctivitis. Dis Mon 60 (6):231-8. DOI:10.1016/j.disamonth.2014.03.002 PMID: 24906667 PMID: 24906667
  18. Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975) Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. Biochem Pharmacol 24 (17):1639-41. PMID: https://doi.org/10.3109/02713683.2014.964419
  19. Rose PW, Harnden A, Brueggemann AB, Perera R, Sheikh A, Crook D | display-authors=etal (2005) Chloramphenicol treatment for acute infective conjunctivitis in children in primary care: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 366 (9479):37-43. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66709-8 PMID: 15993231 PMID: 15993231
  20. Tappeiner C, Klotsche J, Schenck S, Niewerth M, Minden K, Heiligenhaus A (2015) Temporal change in prevalence and complications of uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis:data from a cross-sectional analysis of a prospective nationwide study. Clin Exp Rheumatol 33 (6):936-44. PMID: 26517055 PMID: 26517055
  21. Teo L, Mehta JS, Htoon HM, Tan DT (2012) Severity of pediatric blepharokeratoconjunctivitis in Asian eyes. Am J Ophthalmol 153 (3):564-570.e1. DOI:10.1016/j.ajo.2011.08.037 PMID: 22071229 PMID: 22071229
  22. Wieringa WG, Wieringa JE, ten Dam-van Loon NH, Los LI (2013) Visual outcome, treatment results, and prognostic factors in patients with scleritis. Ophthalmology 120 (2):379-86. DOI:10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.08.005 PMID: 23177360 PMID: 23177360
  23. Wong VW, Lai TY, Chi SC, Lam DS (2011) Pediatric ocular surface infections: a 5-year review of demographics, clinical features, risk factors, microbiological results, and treatment. Cornea 30 (9):995-1002. DOI:10.1097/ICO.0b013e31820770f4 PMID: 21705879 PMID: 21705879
  24. Frings A, Geerling G, Schargus M (2017) Red Eye: A Guide for Non-specialists. Dtsch Arztebl Int 114 (17):302-312. DOI:10.3238/arztebl.2017.0302 PMID: 28530180 : 28530180
  25. Cronau H, Kankanala RR, Mauger T (2010) Diagnosis and management of red eye in primary care. Am Fam Physician 81 (2):137-44. PMID: 20082509 PMID: 20082509
  26. Sauer A, Speeg-Schatz C, Bourcier T (2008). "[Red eye in children]". Rev Prat. 58 (4): 353–7. PMID 18506971 PMID: 18506971 Check |pmid= value (help).
  27. Teoh DL, Reynolds S (2003) Diagnosis and management of pediatric conjunctivitis. Pediatr Emerg Care 19 (1):48-55. DOI:10.1097/00006565-200302000-00014 PMID: 12592117 PMID: 12592117
  28. Høvding G (2008). "Acute bacterial conjunctivitis". Acta Ophthalmol. 86 (1): 5–17. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0420.2007.01006.x. PMID 17970823 PMID: 17970823 Check |pmid= value (help).
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