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== Overview ==
== Overview ==


Coronaviruses were first isolated from chickens in 1937. In 1965, Tyrrell and Bynoe used cultures of human ciliated embryonal trachea to propagate the first human coronavirus (HCoV) in vitro. There are now approximately 15 species in this family, which infect not only man but cattle, pigs, rodents, cats, dogs and birds (some are serious veterinary pathogens, especially chickens).
Coronavirus, named due to the "crown" like appearance of its surface projections, was first isolated from chickens in 1937. In 1965, Tyrrell and Bynoe used cultures of human ciliated embryonal trachea to propagate the first human coronavirus (HCoV) [[in vitro]]. There are now approximately 15 [[species]] in this family, which [[Infection|infect]] not only humans but cattle, pigs, rodents, cats, dogs and birds (some are serious [[veterinary]] [[Pathogen|pathogens]], especially chickens).


==Historical Perspective==
==Historical Perspective==


* Coronavirus, named due to the "crown" like appearance of its surface projections, was first isolated from chickens in 1937.
* Coronavirus, named due to the "crown" like appearance of its surface projections, was first isolated from chickens in 1937.
* In 1965, Tyrrell and Bynoe used cultures of human ciliated embryonal trachea to propagate the first human coronavirus (HCoV) in vitro.  
* In 1965, Tyrrell and Bynoe used cultures of human ciliated embryonal trachea to propagate the first human coronavirus (HCoV) [[in vitro]].
* There are now approximately 15 species in this family, which infect not only man but cattle, pigs, rodents, cats, dogs and birds (some are serious veterinary pathogens, especially chickens).<ref name="urlCoronavirus - MicrobeWiki">{{cite web |url=http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Coronavirus |title=Coronavirus - MicrobeWiki |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-12-28}}</ref>
* There are now approximately 15 [[species]] in this family, which infect not only humans but cattle, pigs, rodents, cats, dogs and birds (some are serious veterinary pathogens, especially chickens).<ref name="urlCoronavirus - MicrobeWiki">{{cite web |url=http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Coronavirus |title=Coronavirus - MicrobeWiki |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-12-28}}</ref>


=== SARS-CoV ===
=== SARS-CoV ===


* Coronavirus gained international popularity after the deadly SARS epidemic caused by SARS-CoV in 2002 - 2003.
* Coronavirus gained international popularity after the deadly [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] epidemic caused by [[SARS-CoV]] in 2002 - 2003.
* Prior to the SARS epidemic, two coronaviruses (HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-229E) were recognized to be responsible for causing upper respiratory tract infections with more severe outcomes in the elderly and the immunocompromised.<ref name="pmid16983613">{{cite journal |vauthors=Garbino J, Crespo S, Aubert JD, Rochat T, Ninet B, Deffernez C, Wunderli W, Pache JC, Soccal PM, Kaiser L |title=A prospective hospital-based study of the clinical impact of non-severe acute respiratory syndrome (Non-SARS)-related human coronavirus infection |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=1009–15 |date=October 2006 |pmid=16983613 |doi=10.1086/507898 |url=}}</ref>
* Prior to the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] epidemic, two coronaviruses (HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-229E) were recognized to be responsible for causing [[Upper respiratory tract infection|upper respiratory tract infections]] with more severe outcomes in the [[Old age|elderly]] and the [[immunocompromised]].<ref name="pmid16983613">{{cite journal |vauthors=Garbino J, Crespo S, Aubert JD, Rochat T, Ninet B, Deffernez C, Wunderli W, Pache JC, Soccal PM, Kaiser L |title=A prospective hospital-based study of the clinical impact of non-severe acute respiratory syndrome (Non-SARS)-related human coronavirus infection |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=1009–15 |date=October 2006 |pmid=16983613 |doi=10.1086/507898 |url=}}</ref>
* SARS-CoV however, not only caused severe respiratory illness with a mortality rate of 10% during the 2002 - 2003 epidemic but it also caused systemic disease affecting other organs and tissues.<ref name="pmid15577937">{{cite journal |vauthors=Peiris JS, Guan Y, Yuen KY |title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=10 |issue=12 Suppl |pages=S88–97 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15577937 |doi=10.1038/nm1143 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16043521">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gu J, Gong E, Zhang B, Zheng J, Gao Z, Zhong Y, Zou W, Zhan J, Wang S, Xie Z, Zhuang H, Wu B, Zhong H, Shao H, Fang W, Gao D, Pei F, Li X, He Z, Xu D, Shi X, Anderson VM, Leong AS |title=Multiple organ infection and the pathogenesis of SARS |journal=J. Exp. Med. |volume=202 |issue=3 |pages=415–24 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16043521 |pmc=2213088 |doi=10.1084/jem.20050828 |url=}}</ref>
* SARS-CoV however, not only caused severe [[respiratory illness]] with a mortality rate of 10% during the 2002 - 2003 [[epidemic]] but it also caused [[systemic disease]] affecting other [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]] and [[Tissue (biology)|tissues]].<ref name="pmid15577937">{{cite journal |vauthors=Peiris JS, Guan Y, Yuen KY |title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=10 |issue=12 Suppl |pages=S88–97 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15577937 |doi=10.1038/nm1143 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16043521">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gu J, Gong E, Zhang B, Zheng J, Gao Z, Zhong Y, Zou W, Zhan J, Wang S, Xie Z, Zhuang H, Wu B, Zhong H, Shao H, Fang W, Gao D, Pei F, Li X, He Z, Xu D, Shi X, Anderson VM, Leong AS |title=Multiple organ infection and the pathogenesis of SARS |journal=J. Exp. Med. |volume=202 |issue=3 |pages=415–24 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16043521 |pmc=2213088 |doi=10.1084/jem.20050828 |url=}}</ref>
*SARS-CoV's striking feature was its ability to cross species enabling the virus to make its way from infecting animal handlers in the live animal retail markets to causing "superspreading events".<ref name="pmid12958366">{{cite journal |vauthors=Guan Y, Zheng BJ, He YQ, Liu XL, Zhuang ZX, Cheung CL, Luo SW, Li PH, Zhang LJ, Guan YJ, Butt KM, Wong KL, Chan KW, Lim W, Shortridge KF, Yuen KY, Peiris JS, Poon LL |title=Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5643 |pages=276–8 |date=October 2003 |pmid=12958366 |doi=10.1126/science.1087139 |url=}}</ref>
*SARS-CoV's striking feature was its ability to cross [[species]] enabling the [[virus]] to make its way from [[Infection|infecting]] animal handlers in the live animal retail markets to causing "superspreading events".<ref name="pmid12958366">{{cite journal |vauthors=Guan Y, Zheng BJ, He YQ, Liu XL, Zhuang ZX, Cheung CL, Luo SW, Li PH, Zhang LJ, Guan YJ, Butt KM, Wong KL, Chan KW, Lim W, Shortridge KF, Yuen KY, Peiris JS, Poon LL |title=Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5643 |pages=276–8 |date=October 2003 |pmid=12958366 |doi=10.1126/science.1087139 |url=}}</ref>
 
=== MERS-CoV ===
 
* A [[novel coronavirus]] known as the [[MERS-CoV]] was the highlight of the year 2012 when it caused the [[Middle East respiratory syndrome|Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) epidemic]].<ref name="pmid26695637">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mackay IM, Arden KE |title=MERS coronavirus: diagnostics, epidemiology and transmission |journal=Virol. J. |volume=12 |issue= |pages=222 |date=December 2015 |pmid=26695637 |pmc=4687373 |doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0439-5 |url=}}</ref>
*[[MERS-CoV]], believed to be enzootic in dromedary camels across the Arabian Peninsula and in parts of Africa, caused a [[lower respiratory tract infection]] that would progress to [[acute respiratory distress syndrome]], [[multiorgan failure]], and death.
 
=== SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 ===
 
* 2019 Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is a [[virus]] identified as the cause of an outbreak of [[respiratory illness]] first detected in Wuhan, China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/index.html|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>
*Initially, the [[Patient|patients]] were believed to have contracted the [[virus]] from [[seafood]]/animal markets which suggested animal-to-human spread.
*The growing number of [[patients]] however, suggest that human-to-human transmission is actively occurring.
*In the United States, confirmed cases of COVID-19 have been reported in the states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin.
*So far, the [[virus]] has spread globally and there are confirmed cases of the [[disease]] in the following countries:
:* China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Australia, Cambodia, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, India, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Thailand, The Republic of Korea, United Arab Emirates, United States, and Vietnam<br />


=== Other Pathogenic Coronaviruses ===
=== Other Pathogenic Coronaviruses ===


* The recognition of SARS led the search for other pathogenic coronaviruses, which culminated in the discovery of HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-HKU1.
* The recognition of [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] led the search for other [[Pathogen|pathogenic]] coronaviruses, which culminated in the discovery of HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-HKU1.
* HCoV-NL63 was isolated from hospitalized young children and HCoV-HKU1 was isolated from hospitalized elderly with comorbidities.<ref name="pmid15073334">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fouchier RA, Hartwig NG, Bestebroer TM, Niemeyer B, de Jong JC, Simon JH, Osterhaus AD |title=A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=101 |issue=16 |pages=6212–6 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15073334 |pmc=395948 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0400762101 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15034574">{{cite journal |vauthors=van der Hoek L, Pyrc K, Jebbink MF, Vermeulen-Oost W, Berkhout RJ, Wolthers KC, Wertheim-van Dillen PM, Kaandorp J, Spaargaren J, Berkhout B |title=Identification of a new human coronavirus |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=368–73 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15034574 |doi=10.1038/nm1024 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15613317">{{cite journal |vauthors=Woo PC, Lau SK, Chu CM, Chan KH, Tsoi HW, Huang Y, Wong BH, Poon RW, Cai JJ, Luk WK, Poon LL, Wong SS, Guan Y, Peiris JS, Yuen KY |title=Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia |journal=J. Virol. |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=884–95 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15613317 |pmc=538593 |doi=10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005 |url=}}</ref>
* HCoV-NL63 was isolated from [[Hospitalization|hospitalized]] young children and HCoV-HKU1 was isolated from [[Hospitalization|hospitalized]] [[Old age|elderly]] with [[Comorbidity|comorbidities]].<ref name="pmid15073334">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fouchier RA, Hartwig NG, Bestebroer TM, Niemeyer B, de Jong JC, Simon JH, Osterhaus AD |title=A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=101 |issue=16 |pages=6212–6 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15073334 |pmc=395948 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0400762101 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15034574">{{cite journal |vauthors=van der Hoek L, Pyrc K, Jebbink MF, Vermeulen-Oost W, Berkhout RJ, Wolthers KC, Wertheim-van Dillen PM, Kaandorp J, Spaargaren J, Berkhout B |title=Identification of a new human coronavirus |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=368–73 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15034574 |doi=10.1038/nm1024 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15613317">{{cite journal |vauthors=Woo PC, Lau SK, Chu CM, Chan KH, Tsoi HW, Huang Y, Wong BH, Poon RW, Cai JJ, Luk WK, Poon LL, Wong SS, Guan Y, Peiris JS, Yuen KY |title=Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia |journal=J. Virol. |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=884–95 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15613317 |pmc=538593 |doi=10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005 |url=}}</ref>
* HCoV-NL63, infecting humans for centuries, has been shown that it diverged from HCoV-229E approximately 1000 years ago.<ref name="pmid17054987">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pyrc K, Dijkman R, Deng L, Jebbink MF, Ross HA, Berkhout B, van der Hoek L |title=Mosaic structure of human coronavirus NL63, one thousand years of evolution |journal=J. Mol. Biol. |volume=364 |issue=5 |pages=964–73 |date=December 2006 |pmid=17054987 |doi=10.1016/j.jmb.2006.09.074 |url=}}</ref>
* HCoV-NL63, infecting humans for centuries, has been shown that it diverged from HCoV-229E approximately 1000 years ago.<ref name="pmid17054987">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pyrc K, Dijkman R, Deng L, Jebbink MF, Ross HA, Berkhout B, van der Hoek L |title=Mosaic structure of human coronavirus NL63, one thousand years of evolution |journal=J. Mol. Biol. |volume=364 |issue=5 |pages=964–73 |date=December 2006 |pmid=17054987 |doi=10.1016/j.jmb.2006.09.074 |url=}}</ref>


=== Evolution of the Virus ===
=== Evolution of the Virus ===


* Genetic analyses performed at the time of the SARS epidemic showed that the virus underwent rapid adaptations in both animals and humans.<ref name="pmid14752165">{{cite journal |vauthors= |title=Molecular evolution of the SARS coronavirus during the course of the SARS epidemic in China |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5664 |pages=1666–9 |date=March 2004 |pmid=14752165 |doi=10.1126/science.1092002 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15695582">{{cite journal |vauthors=Song HD, Tu CC, Zhang GW, Wang SY, Zheng K, Lei LC, Chen QX, Gao YW, Zhou HQ, Xiang H, Zheng HJ, Chern SW, Cheng F, Pan CM, Xuan H, Chen SJ, Luo HM, Zhou DH, Liu YF, He JF, Qin PZ, Li LH, Ren YQ, Liang WJ, Yu YD, Anderson L, Wang M, Xu RH, Wu XW, Zheng HY, Chen JD, Liang G, Gao Y, Liao M, Fang L, Jiang LY, Li H, Chen F, Di B, He LJ, Lin JY, Tong S, Kong X, Du L, Hao P, Tang H, Bernini A, Yu XJ, Spiga O, Guo ZM, Pan HY, He WZ, Manuguerra JC, Fontanet A, Danchin A, Niccolai N, Li YX, Wu CI, Zhao GP |title=Cross-host evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in palm civet and human |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 |issue=7 |pages=2430–5 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15695582 |pmc=548959 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0409608102 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Genetic analysis|Genetic analyses]] performed at the time of the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] [[epidemic]] showed that the [[virus]] underwent rapid adaptations in both animals and humans.<ref name="pmid14752165">{{cite journal |vauthors= |title=Molecular evolution of the SARS coronavirus during the course of the SARS epidemic in China |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5664 |pages=1666–9 |date=March 2004 |pmid=14752165 |doi=10.1126/science.1092002 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15695582">{{cite journal |vauthors=Song HD, Tu CC, Zhang GW, Wang SY, Zheng K, Lei LC, Chen QX, Gao YW, Zhou HQ, Xiang H, Zheng HJ, Chern SW, Cheng F, Pan CM, Xuan H, Chen SJ, Luo HM, Zhou DH, Liu YF, He JF, Qin PZ, Li LH, Ren YQ, Liang WJ, Yu YD, Anderson L, Wang M, Xu RH, Wu XW, Zheng HY, Chen JD, Liang G, Gao Y, Liao M, Fang L, Jiang LY, Li H, Chen F, Di B, He LJ, Lin JY, Tong S, Kong X, Du L, Hao P, Tang H, Bernini A, Yu XJ, Spiga O, Guo ZM, Pan HY, He WZ, Manuguerra JC, Fontanet A, Danchin A, Niccolai N, Li YX, Wu CI, Zhao GP |title=Cross-host evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in palm civet and human |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 |issue=7 |pages=2430–5 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15695582 |pmc=548959 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0409608102 |url=}}</ref>
*The most significant of the adaptations was changing the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the S protein, allowing more efficient infection of the human cells.<ref name="pmid15791205">{{cite journal |vauthors=Li W, Zhang C, Sui J, Kuhn JH, Moore MJ, Luo S, Wong SK, Huang IC, Xu K, Vasilieva N, Murakami A, He Y, Marasco WA, Guan Y, Choe H, Farzan M |title=Receptor and viral determinants of SARS-coronavirus adaptation to human ACE2 |journal=EMBO J. |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1634–43 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15791205 |pmc=1142572 |doi=10.1038/sj.emboj.7600640 |url=}}</ref>
*The most significant of these adaptations was changing the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the S protein, allowing more efficient [[infection]] of the human [[Cell (biology)|cells]].<ref name="pmid15791205">{{cite journal |vauthors=Li W, Zhang C, Sui J, Kuhn JH, Moore MJ, Luo S, Wong SK, Huang IC, Xu K, Vasilieva N, Murakami A, He Y, Marasco WA, Guan Y, Choe H, Farzan M |title=Receptor and viral determinants of SARS-coronavirus adaptation to human ACE2 |journal=EMBO J. |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1634–43 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15791205 |pmc=1142572 |doi=10.1038/sj.emboj.7600640 |url=}}</ref>


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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sabawoon Mirwais, M.B.B.S, M.D.[2], Aditya Govindavarjhulla, M.B.B.S. [3]

Overview

Coronavirus, named due to the "crown" like appearance of its surface projections, was first isolated from chickens in 1937. In 1965, Tyrrell and Bynoe used cultures of human ciliated embryonal trachea to propagate the first human coronavirus (HCoV) in vitro. There are now approximately 15 species in this family, which infect not only humans but cattle, pigs, rodents, cats, dogs and birds (some are serious veterinary pathogens, especially chickens).

Historical Perspective

  • Coronavirus, named due to the "crown" like appearance of its surface projections, was first isolated from chickens in 1937.
  • In 1965, Tyrrell and Bynoe used cultures of human ciliated embryonal trachea to propagate the first human coronavirus (HCoV) in vitro.
  • There are now approximately 15 species in this family, which infect not only humans but cattle, pigs, rodents, cats, dogs and birds (some are serious veterinary pathogens, especially chickens).[1]

SARS-CoV

MERS-CoV

SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19

  • 2019 Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is a virus identified as the cause of an outbreak of respiratory illness first detected in Wuhan, China.[7]
  • Initially, the patients were believed to have contracted the virus from seafood/animal markets which suggested animal-to-human spread.
  • The growing number of patients however, suggest that human-to-human transmission is actively occurring.
  • In the United States, confirmed cases of COVID-19 have been reported in the states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin.
  • So far, the virus has spread globally and there are confirmed cases of the disease in the following countries:
  • China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Australia, Cambodia, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, India, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Thailand, The Republic of Korea, United Arab Emirates, United States, and Vietnam

Other Pathogenic Coronaviruses

  • The recognition of SARS led the search for other pathogenic coronaviruses, which culminated in the discovery of HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-HKU1.
  • HCoV-NL63 was isolated from hospitalized young children and HCoV-HKU1 was isolated from hospitalized elderly with comorbidities.[8][9][10]
  • HCoV-NL63, infecting humans for centuries, has been shown that it diverged from HCoV-229E approximately 1000 years ago.[11]

Evolution of the Virus

  • Genetic analyses performed at the time of the SARS epidemic showed that the virus underwent rapid adaptations in both animals and humans.[12][13]
  • The most significant of these adaptations was changing the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the S protein, allowing more efficient infection of the human cells.[14]

References

  1. ↑ "Coronavirus - MicrobeWiki". Retrieved 2012-12-28.
  2. ↑ Garbino J, Crespo S, Aubert JD, Rochat T, Ninet B, Deffernez C, Wunderli W, Pache JC, Soccal PM, Kaiser L (October 2006). "A prospective hospital-based study of the clinical impact of non-severe acute respiratory syndrome (Non-SARS)-related human coronavirus infection". Clin. Infect. Dis. 43 (8): 1009–15. doi:10.1086/507898. PMID 16983613.
  3. ↑ Peiris JS, Guan Y, Yuen KY (December 2004). "Severe acute respiratory syndrome". Nat. Med. 10 (12 Suppl): S88–97. doi:10.1038/nm1143. PMID 15577937.
  4. ↑ Gu J, Gong E, Zhang B, Zheng J, Gao Z, Zhong Y, Zou W, Zhan J, Wang S, Xie Z, Zhuang H, Wu B, Zhong H, Shao H, Fang W, Gao D, Pei F, Li X, He Z, Xu D, Shi X, Anderson VM, Leong AS (August 2005). "Multiple organ infection and the pathogenesis of SARS". J. Exp. Med. 202 (3): 415–24. doi:10.1084/jem.20050828. PMC 2213088. PMID 16043521.
  5. ↑ Guan Y, Zheng BJ, He YQ, Liu XL, Zhuang ZX, Cheung CL, Luo SW, Li PH, Zhang LJ, Guan YJ, Butt KM, Wong KL, Chan KW, Lim W, Shortridge KF, Yuen KY, Peiris JS, Poon LL (October 2003). "Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China". Science. 302 (5643): 276–8. doi:10.1126/science.1087139. PMID 12958366.
  6. ↑ Mackay IM, Arden KE (December 2015). "MERS coronavirus: diagnostics, epidemiology and transmission". Virol. J. 12: 222. doi:10.1186/s12985-015-0439-5. PMC 4687373. PMID 26695637.
  7. ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/index.html. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  8. ↑ Fouchier RA, Hartwig NG, Bestebroer TM, Niemeyer B, de Jong JC, Simon JH, Osterhaus AD (April 2004). "A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 (16): 6212–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.0400762101. PMC 395948. PMID 15073334.
  9. ↑ van der Hoek L, Pyrc K, Jebbink MF, Vermeulen-Oost W, Berkhout RJ, Wolthers KC, Wertheim-van Dillen PM, Kaandorp J, Spaargaren J, Berkhout B (April 2004). "Identification of a new human coronavirus". Nat. Med. 10 (4): 368–73. doi:10.1038/nm1024. PMID 15034574.
  10. ↑ Woo PC, Lau SK, Chu CM, Chan KH, Tsoi HW, Huang Y, Wong BH, Poon RW, Cai JJ, Luk WK, Poon LL, Wong SS, Guan Y, Peiris JS, Yuen KY (January 2005). "Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia". J. Virol. 79 (2): 884–95. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005. PMC 538593. PMID 15613317.
  11. ↑ Pyrc K, Dijkman R, Deng L, Jebbink MF, Ross HA, Berkhout B, van der Hoek L (December 2006). "Mosaic structure of human coronavirus NL63, one thousand years of evolution". J. Mol. Biol. 364 (5): 964–73. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2006.09.074. PMID 17054987.
  12. ↑ "Molecular evolution of the SARS coronavirus during the course of the SARS epidemic in China". Science. 303 (5664): 1666–9. March 2004. doi:10.1126/science.1092002. PMID 14752165.
  13. ↑ Song HD, Tu CC, Zhang GW, Wang SY, Zheng K, Lei LC, Chen QX, Gao YW, Zhou HQ, Xiang H, Zheng HJ, Chern SW, Cheng F, Pan CM, Xuan H, Chen SJ, Luo HM, Zhou DH, Liu YF, He JF, Qin PZ, Li LH, Ren YQ, Liang WJ, Yu YD, Anderson L, Wang M, Xu RH, Wu XW, Zheng HY, Chen JD, Liang G, Gao Y, Liao M, Fang L, Jiang LY, Li H, Chen F, Di B, He LJ, Lin JY, Tong S, Kong X, Du L, Hao P, Tang H, Bernini A, Yu XJ, Spiga O, Guo ZM, Pan HY, He WZ, Manuguerra JC, Fontanet A, Danchin A, Niccolai N, Li YX, Wu CI, Zhao GP (February 2005). "Cross-host evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in palm civet and human". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (7): 2430–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.0409608102. PMC 548959. PMID 15695582.
  14. ↑ Li W, Zhang C, Sui J, Kuhn JH, Moore MJ, Luo S, Wong SK, Huang IC, Xu K, Vasilieva N, Murakami A, He Y, Marasco WA, Guan Y, Choe H, Farzan M (April 2005). "Receptor and viral determinants of SARS-coronavirus adaptation to human ACE2". EMBO J. 24 (8): 1634–43. doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600640. PMC 1142572. PMID 15791205.

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