Gastroparesis causes: Difference between revisions

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{{Gastroparesis}}
{{Gastroparesis}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{FK}}
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==Overview==
==Overview==
The [[etiology]] of gastroparesis can be broadly classified into idiopathic, [[diabetic]], post-surgical and medication induced. Life threatening causes of gastroparesis include [[brainstem stroke]] and [[hypokalemia]] (which may lead to [[Cardiac arrhythmia|cardiac arrythmias]]). [[Surgical procedures]] most commonly associated with gastroparesis include distal [[gastrectomy]], pancreatoduodenectomy, [[cholecystectomy]] and [[fundoplication]]. Common medications associated with the development of gastroparesis include [[narcotics]], [[tricyclic antidepressants]], [[octreotide]], [[amylin]] analogues, [[dopamine]] analogues and [[phenothiazines]].


==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life Threatening Causes===
===Life threatening causes===
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
*List the life-threatening causes here.
* [[Brainstem stroke]]
 
* [[Hypokalemia]]
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===Common Causes===
===Common causes===
*[[Anticholinergics]]
*Idiopathic<ref name="pmid19410575">{{cite journal| author=Hyett B, Martinez FJ, Gill BM, Mehra S, Lembo A, Kelly CP et al.| title=Delayed radionucleotide gastric emptying studies predict morbidity in diabetics with symptoms of gastroparesis. | journal=Gastroenterology | year= 2009 | volume= 137 | issue= 2 | pages= 445-52 | pmid=19410575 | doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2009.04.055 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19410575  }}</ref><ref name="pmid25667019">{{cite journal| author=Bharucha AE| title=Epidemiology and natural history of gastroparesis. | journal=Gastroenterol Clin North Am | year= 2015 | volume= 44 | issue= 1 | pages= 9-19 | pmid=25667019 | doi=10.1016/j.gtc.2014.11.002 | pmc=4323583 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25667019  }}</ref>
*[[Diabetes mellitus]]
*[[Diabetes mellitus]] ([[Diabetes mellitus type 2|Type II]] is more common cause than [[Diabetes mellitus type 1|type I DM]])<ref name="pmid19410575" /> - second commonest cause
*Post- surgical: Distal [[gastrectomy]] for [[Gastric carcinoma|cancer of stomach]], pancreatoduodenectomy, [[cholecystectomy]], [[fundoplication]] etc<ref name="pmid28320386">{{cite journal| author=Glowka TR, Webler M, Matthaei H, Schäfer N, Schmitz V, Kalff JC et al.| title=Delayed gastric emptying following pancreatoduodenectomy with alimentary reconstruction according to Roux-en-Y or Billroth-II. | journal=BMC Surg | year= 2017 | volume= 17 | issue= 1 | pages= 24 | pmid=28320386 | doi=10.1186/s12893-017-0226-x | pmc=5359898 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28320386  }}</ref>
*[[Narcotics]]
*[[Narcotics]]
*[[Phenothiazines]]
*[[Phenothiazines]]
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*[[Systemic sclerosis]]
*[[Systemic sclerosis]]
*[[Vagotomy]]
*[[Vagotomy]]
=== Less common causes ===
'''Transient gastroparesis''' may arise in acute illness of any kind:
* Certain cancer treatments or other drugs which affect digestive action
* [[Anorexia]]
* [[Bulimia]]
* Other abnormal eating patterns
* Medications ([[anticholinergics]] and [[narcotics]]) that slow contractions in the intestine
'''Chronic gastroparesis''' is frequently due to [[autonomic neuropathy]]:
* [[Type 1 diabetes]] or [[type 2 diabetes]]:
** The vagus nerve becomes damaged by years of high blood glucose, resulting in gastroparesis
* [[Fibromyalgia]]
* [[Parkinson's disease]]
* Mitochondrial disorder
* [[Abdominal surgery]]<ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gastroparesis/DS00612/DSECTION=3 Gastroparesis: Causes - MayoClinic.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
* [[Amyloidosis]]
* [[Scleroderma]]
* [[Abdominal migraine]]
* [[Hypothyroidism]]
* [[Gastroesophageal reflux disease]]
'''Idiopathic gastroparesis''' (gastroparesis with no known cause) accounts for a third of all chronic cases; it is thought that many of these cases are due to an autoimmune response triggered by an [[viral infection|acute viral infection]]:
* [[Stomach flu]]
* [[Mononucleosis]], and others have been anecdotally linked to the onset of the condition, but no systematic study has proven a link
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===Causes by Organ System===
===Causes by Organ System===
{|style="width:82%; height:100px" border="1"
{| style="width:82%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | [[Percutaneous]] [[catheter ablation]] for [[atrial fibrillation]]; [[prevalence]] of gastroparesis after [[Radiofrequency ablation|radio-frequency ablation]] is 10% and [[cryoablation]] procedures is 6%, respectively.<ref name="pmid25933733">{{cite journal| author=Aksu T, Golcuk S, Guler TE, Yalin K, Erden I| title=Gastroparesis as a Complication of Atrial Fibrillation Ablation. | journal=Am J Cardiol | year= 2015 | volume= 116 | issue= 1 | pages= 92-7 | pmid=25933733 | doi=10.1016/j.amjcard.2015.03.045 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25933733  }} </ref>
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical/Poisoning'''
| '''Chemical/Poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
| '''Dental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Tricyclic antidepressants]], [[Phenothiazines]], [[Octreotide]], [[Narcotics]], Muscarinic cholinergic receptor [[antagonists]],
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Tricyclic antidepressants]], [[phenothiazines]], [[octreotide]], [[narcotics]], [[muscarinic cholinergic receptor]] [[antagonists]],
Glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 agonists, Amylin analogues, [[Dopamine agonists]], [[Cholangiocarcinoma]], [[Calcium channel blockers]], [[Anticholinergics]], Alpha-2-adrenergic [[agonists]]
[[Glucagon-like peptide-1|glucagon-like peptide]] (GLP)-1 agonists, [[amylin]] analogues, [[dopamine agonists]], [[cholangiocarcinoma]], [[calcium channel blockers]], [[anticholinergics]], [[Alpha adrenergic receptor|alpha-2-adrenergic]] [[agonists]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Hypothyroidism]], [[Hypoparathyroidism]], [[Diabetes mellitus type 2]], [[Diabetes mellitus type 1]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Hypothyroidism]], [[hypoparathyroidism]], [[diabetes mellitus type 2]], [[diabetes mellitus type 1]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Ulcers]] in first portion of [[duodenum]], [[Pyloric stenosis]], [[Pyloric]] channel [[ulcer]], [[Pancreatic pseudocyst]], [[Pancreatic cancer]],
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Ulcers]] in first portion of [[duodenum]], [[pyloric stenosis]], pyloric channel [[ulcer]], [[pancreatic pseudocyst]], [[pancreatic cancer]],
[[Gastroesophageal reflux disease]], [[Gastric]] [[polyps]], [[Gastric cancer]], [[Duodenal cancer]], [[Abdominal migraine]]
[[gastroesophageal reflux disease]], [[gastric]] [[polyps]], [[gastric cancer]], [[duodenal cancer]], [[abdominal migraine]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|Surgery on the [[stomach]] or [[vagus nerve]], Complication of [[stomach]] surgery for ulcer disease or [[weight loss]],[[Vagotomy]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |Surgery on the [[stomach]] or [[vagus nerve]], complication of [[stomach]] [[surgery]] for [[Peptic ulcer disease|ulcer disease]] or [[weight loss]], [[vagotomy]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Rotavirus]], Postviral syndromes, [[Norwalk virus]], [[AIDS]], Acute viral [[infection]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Rotavirus]], postviral syndromes, [[Norwalk virus]], [[AIDS]], acute [[viral]] [[infection]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic'''
| '''Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|Primary [[dysautonomias]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[Brainstem]] [[stroke]] or [[tumor]], [[Autonomic neuropathy]], [[Autoimmune]] [[gastrointestinal]] dysmotility
| bgcolor="Beige" |Primary [[dysautonomias]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[brainstem stroke]] or [[tumor]], [[autonomic neuropathy]], [[autoimmune]] [[gastrointestinal]] dysmotility
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional/Metabolic'''
| '''Nutritional/Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Pregnancy]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Pregnancy]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|Ampullary [[cancer]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |Ampullary [[cancer]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose/Toxicity'''
| '''Overdose/Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Psychogenic]], [[vomiting]], [[Depression]], [[Bulimia]], [[Anxiety]] [[neurosis]], [[Anorexia nervosa]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Psychogenic]], [[vomiting]], [[depression]], [[Bulimia Nervosa|bulimia]], [[anxiety]], [[neurosis]], [[anorexia nervosa]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Small cell lung cancer]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Small cell lung cancer]]<ref name="pmid25498111">{{cite journal| author=Vaidya GN, Lutchmansingh D, Paul M, John S| title=Gastroparesis as the initial presentation of pulmonary adenocarcinoma. | journal=BMJ Case Rep | year= 2014 | volume= 2014 | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=25498111 | doi=10.1136/bcr-2014-207228 | pmc=4265036 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25498111  }}</ref>
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal/Electrolyte'''
| '''Renal/Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Kidney failure]], [[Hypomagnesemia]], [[Hypokalemia]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Kidney failure]], [[hypomagnesemia]], [[hypokalemia]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Systemic sclerosis]], Sclerodema, [[Polymyositis]], [[Lupus]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Systemic sclerosis]], [[scleroderma]], [[polymyositis]], [[Systemic lupus erythematosus|lupus]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Myotonic dystrophy]], [[Idiopathic]], [[Congenital]] [[obstruction]], [[Bouveret Syndrome]], [[Amyloidosis ]], [[Amyloid]] [[neuropathy ]]
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Myotonic dystrophy]], [[idiopathic]], [[congenital]] [[obstruction]], [[Bouveret's syndrome|Bouveret syndrome]], [[amyloidosis]], [[amyloid]] [[neuropathy ]]
|-
|-
|}
|}
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===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
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{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}
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'''Transient gastroparesis''' may arise in acute illness of any kind,
* Certain cancer treatments or other drugs which affect digestive action,
* [[Anorexia]]
* [[Bulimia]]
* Other abnormal eating patterns.
* Medications([[anticholinergics]] and [[narcotics]])that slow contractions in the intestine
'''Chronic gastroparesis''' is frequently due to [[autonomic neuropathy]].
* [[Type 1 diabetes]] or [[type 2 diabetes]]:  The vagus nerve becomes damaged by years of high blood glucose, resulting in gastroparesis.  [[Fibromyalgia]]
* [[Parkinson's disease]]
* Mitochondrial disorder.
* [[Abdominal surgery]].<ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gastroparesis/DS00612/DSECTION=3 Gastroparesis: Causes - MayoClinic.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
* [[Amyloidosis]]
* [[Scleroderma]]
* [[Abdominal migraine]]
* [[Hypothyroidism]]
* [[Gastroesophageal reflux disease]]
'''Idiopathic gastroparesis''' (gastroparesis with no known cause) accounts for a third of all chronic cases; it is thought that many of these cases are due to an autoimmune response triggered by an [[viral infection|acute viral infection]]
* [[Stomach flu]]
* [[Mononucleosis]], and others have been anecdotally linked to the onset of the condition, but no systematic study has proven a link.


==References==
==References==
Line 233: Line 242:


[[Category:Needs content]]
[[Category:Needs content]]
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]


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Latest revision as of 15:48, 20 February 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Madhu Sigdel M.B.B.S.[2] Farman Khan, MD, MRCP [3]

Overview

The etiology of gastroparesis can be broadly classified into idiopathic, diabetic, post-surgical and medication induced. Life threatening causes of gastroparesis include brainstem stroke and hypokalemia (which may lead to cardiac arrythmias). Surgical procedures most commonly associated with gastroparesis include distal gastrectomy, pancreatoduodenectomy, cholecystectomy and fundoplication. Common medications associated with the development of gastroparesis include narcotics, tricyclic antidepressants, octreotide, amylin analogues, dopamine analogues and phenothiazines.

Causes

Life threatening causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.

Gastroparesis causes developed by WikiDoc.org

Common causes

Less common causes

Transient gastroparesis may arise in acute illness of any kind:

  • Certain cancer treatments or other drugs which affect digestive action
  • Anorexia
  • Bulimia
  • Other abnormal eating patterns
  • Medications (anticholinergics and narcotics) that slow contractions in the intestine

Chronic gastroparesis is frequently due to autonomic neuropathy:

Idiopathic gastroparesis (gastroparesis with no known cause) accounts for a third of all chronic cases; it is thought that many of these cases are due to an autoimmune response triggered by an acute viral infection:

  • Stomach flu
  • Mononucleosis, and others have been anecdotally linked to the onset of the condition, but no systematic study has proven a link

Gastroparesis causes developed by WikiDoc.org

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Percutaneous catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation; prevalence of gastroparesis after radio-frequency ablation is 10% and cryoablation procedures is 6%, respectively.[5]
Chemical/Poisoning No underlying causes
Dental No underlying causes
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect Tricyclic antidepressants, phenothiazines, octreotide, narcotics, muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists,

glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 agonists, amylin analogues, dopamine agonists, cholangiocarcinoma, calcium channel blockers, anticholinergics, alpha-2-adrenergic agonists

Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Hypothyroidism, hypoparathyroidism, diabetes mellitus type 2, diabetes mellitus type 1
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic Ulcers in first portion of duodenum, pyloric stenosis, pyloric channel ulcer, pancreatic pseudocyst, pancreatic cancer,

gastroesophageal reflux disease, gastric polyps, gastric cancer, duodenal cancer, abdominal migraine

Genetic No underlying causes
Hematologic No underlying causes
Iatrogenic Surgery on the stomach or vagus nerve, complication of stomach surgery for ulcer disease or weight loss, vagotomy
Infectious Disease Rotavirus, postviral syndromes, Norwalk virus, AIDS, acute viral infection
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic No underlying causes
Neurologic Primary dysautonomias, Parkinson's disease, brainstem stroke or tumor, autonomic neuropathy, autoimmune gastrointestinal dysmotility
Nutritional/Metabolic No underlying causes
Obstetric/Gynecologic Pregnancy
Oncologic Ampullary cancer
Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose/Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric Psychogenic, vomiting, depression, bulimia, anxiety, neurosis, anorexia nervosa
Pulmonary Small cell lung cancer[6]
Renal/Electrolyte Kidney failure, hypomagnesemia, hypokalemia
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy Systemic sclerosis, scleroderma, polymyositis, lupus
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma No underlying causes
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Myotonic dystrophy, idiopathic, congenital obstruction, Bouveret syndrome, amyloidosis, amyloid neuropathy

Gastroparesis causes developed by WikiDoc.org

Causes in Alphabetical Order

Gastroparesis causes developed by WikiDoc.org

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Hyett B, Martinez FJ, Gill BM, Mehra S, Lembo A, Kelly CP; et al. (2009). "Delayed radionucleotide gastric emptying studies predict morbidity in diabetics with symptoms of gastroparesis". Gastroenterology. 137 (2): 445–52. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2009.04.055. PMID 19410575.
  2. ↑ Bharucha AE (2015). "Epidemiology and natural history of gastroparesis". Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 44 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1016/j.gtc.2014.11.002. PMC 4323583. PMID 25667019.
  3. ↑ Glowka TR, Webler M, Matthaei H, Schäfer N, Schmitz V, Kalff JC; et al. (2017). "Delayed gastric emptying following pancreatoduodenectomy with alimentary reconstruction according to Roux-en-Y or Billroth-II". BMC Surg. 17 (1): 24. doi:10.1186/s12893-017-0226-x. PMC 5359898. PMID 28320386.
  4. ↑ Gastroparesis: Causes - MayoClinic.com
  5. ↑ Aksu T, Golcuk S, Guler TE, Yalin K, Erden I (2015). "Gastroparesis as a Complication of Atrial Fibrillation Ablation". Am J Cardiol. 116 (1): 92–7. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2015.03.045. PMID 25933733.
  6. ↑ Vaidya GN, Lutchmansingh D, Paul M, John S (2014). "Gastroparesis as the initial presentation of pulmonary adenocarcinoma". BMJ Case Rep. 2014. doi:10.1136/bcr-2014-207228. PMC 4265036. PMID 25498111.
  7. ↑ Sailer, Christian, Wasner, Susanne. Differential Diagnosis Pocket. Hermosa Beach, CA: Borm Bruckmeir Publishing LLC, 2002:77 ISBN 1591032016
  8. ↑ Kahan, Scott, Smith, Ellen G. In A Page: Signs and Symptoms. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2004:68 ISBN 140510368X

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