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Evidence-based management (EBMgt) has been advocated to improve management practices<ref>Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Robert I. Sutton. "[https://hbr.org/2006/01/evidence-based-management Evidence-based management]." Harvard business review 84.1 (2006): 62.</ref> and measurement<ref>Kelloway, E. K. (2017). Toward evidence-based practice in organizational wellbeing. In The Routledge Companion to Wellbeing at Work. Routledge Handbooks Online. {{doi|10.4324/9781315665979}}</ref>. This is based on the success of [[evidence-based medicine]] and has been called the management-as-medicine motif (MAMM)<ref name="Morrell">Morrell, Kevin, and Mark Learmonth. "Evidence-based management." The Oxford Handbook of Management (2017): 419. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198708612.013.21}}</ref>. Concern about the approach of EBMgt has been based on a [[Cochrane Collaboration]] review of nursing turnover<ref name="pmid25133355">{{cite journal| author=Webster J, Flint A| title=Exit interviews to reduce turnover amongst healthcare professionals. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue= 8 | pages= CD006620 | pmid=25133355 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006620.pub5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25133355  }} </ref> that focused only on randomized data<ref name="Morrell"/>.
Evidence-based management (EBMgt) has been advocated to improve management practices<ref>Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Robert I. Sutton. "[https://hbr.org/2006/01/evidence-based-management Evidence-based management]." Harvard business review 84.1 (2006): 62.</ref> and measurement<ref>Kelloway, E. K. (2017). Toward evidence-based practice in organizational wellbeing. In The Routledge Companion to Wellbeing at Work. Routledge Handbooks Online. {{doi|10.4324/9781315665979}}</ref>. This is based on the success of [[evidence-based medicine]] and has been called the management-as-medicine motif (MAMM)<ref name="Morrell">Morrell, Kevin, and Mark Learmonth. "Evidence-based management." The Oxford Handbook of Management (2017): 419. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198708612.013.21}}</ref>. Concern about the approach of EBMgt has been based on a [[Cochrane Collaboration]] review of nursing turnover<ref name="pmid25133355">{{cite journal| author=Webster J, Flint A| title=Exit interviews to reduce turnover amongst healthcare professionals. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue= 8 | pages= CD006620 | pmid=25133355 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006620.pub5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25133355  }} </ref> that focused only on randomized data<ref name="Morrell"/>.


Concerns exists about how well MBA programs<ref>Charlier, S. D., Brown, K. G., & Rynes, S. L. (2011). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41318047 Teaching Evidence-Based Management in MBA Programs: What Evidence Is There?] Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(2), 222–236. {{doi|10.5465/amle.10.2.zqr222}}</ref> and textbooks<ref>Aguinis, Herman, Ravi S. Ramani, Nawaf Alabduljader, James Bailey, and Joowon Lee. 2018. “A Pluralist Conceptualization of Scholarly Impact in Management Education: Students as Stakeholders.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, August. {{doi|10.5465/amle.2017.0488}}</ref> teach EBMgt. Perhaps as a result, a gap has been documented between research and human resources practioners<ref>Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., & Brown, K. G. (2002). HR Professionals’ beliefs about effective human resource practices: correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41(2), 149–174. {{doi|10.1002/hrm.10029}}</ref>.
Concerns exists about how well MBA programs<ref>Charlier, S. D., Brown, K. G., & Rynes, S. L. (2011). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41318047 Teaching Evidence-Based Management in MBA Programs: What Evidence Is There?] Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(2), 222–236. {{doi|10.5465/amle.10.2.zqr222}}</ref>,  bridge and practitioner journals<ref>Rynes, Sara L., Tamara L. Giluk, and Kenneth G. Brown. 2007. “The Very Separate Worlds of Academic and Practitioner Periodicals in Human Resource Management: Implications for Evidence-Based Management.” Academy of Management Journal 50 (5): 987–1008. {{doi|10.5465/amj.2007.27151939}}</ref>, and textbooks<ref>Aguinis, Herman, Ravi S. Ramani, Nawaf Alabduljader, James Bailey, and Joowon Lee. 2018. “A Pluralist Conceptualization of Scholarly Impact in Management Education: Students as Stakeholders.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, August. {{doi|10.5465/amle.2017.0488}}</ref> teach EBMgt. Perhaps as a result, a gap has been documented between research and human resources practioners<ref>Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., & Brown, K. G. (2002). HR Professionals’ beliefs about effective human resource practices: correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41(2), 149–174. {{doi|10.1002/hrm.10029}}</ref>.


[[Systematic review]]s have been encouraged as alternative to narrative reviews for summarizing evidence in business and management research.<ref>Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence‐informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management, 14(3), 207-222. {{doi|10.1111/1467-8551.00375}}</ref>
[[Systematic review]]s have been encouraged as alternative to narrative reviews for summarizing evidence in business and management research.<ref>Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence‐informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management, 14(3), 207-222. {{doi|10.1111/1467-8551.00375}}</ref>

Revision as of 04:14, 20 August 2018

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Robert G. Badgett, M.D.[2]

Leadership is "the function of directing or controlling the actions or attitudes of an individual or group with more or less willing acquiescence of the followers".[1]

Leadership development in health care is perceived as being many years behind that of other industries.[2]

Evidence-based management

A gap between what research shows and managers practice has been noted[3][4][5][6].

Evidence-based management (EBMgt) has been advocated to improve management practices[7] and measurement[8]. This is based on the success of evidence-based medicine and has been called the management-as-medicine motif (MAMM)[9]. Concern about the approach of EBMgt has been based on a Cochrane Collaboration review of nursing turnover[10] that focused only on randomized data[9].

Concerns exists about how well MBA programs[11], bridge and practitioner journals[12], and textbooks[13] teach EBMgt. Perhaps as a result, a gap has been documented between research and human resources practioners[14].

Systematic reviews have been encouraged as alternative to narrative reviews for summarizing evidence in business and management research.[15]

Selection and development of leaders

Narcissism may be selected for.[16][17]

Dunning-Kruger effect in hospital administrators[18]

The selection for narcissism may be related to the Dunning-Kruger effect which has been noted to occur in the self-assessment of leadership skills.[18][19][20][21][22]

Individuals with promotive voices rather than a prohibitive voice are more likely to become leaders.[23]

"Emergent leaders showed a higher amount of active gestures and less passive facial expressions than non-leaders" according to eye-tracking studies of teams.[24]

Evolutionary biology may partly explain selection of leaders[25].

Aphorisms about selection of leaders:

  • Peter Principle
  • Dilbert Principle

Masters in Business Administration

CEOs with a MBA may[26][27] or may not[28] underperform other CEOs due to emphasizing short-term business outcomes[29] rather than sustainability.[30]

It is not clear that the curricula in masters programs reflect best research[31].

Humility

The harm of narcissism in leaders may be mitigated by humility[32] Humility, predicted by self-expansion theory, has been found to increase self-expansion and self-efficacy of followers[33]. However, humility may not be effective in teams that expect a high power distance or expect dominating leaders.[34]

Leadership styles related to worksite climate

Leadership style affects work climate.

Leadership styles in health care may affect institutional finances, specifically operating margins.[35]

Early categorization of leadership styles was by Lewin in 1938 who labeled styles as autocratic, democratic.[36]

The terms transactional and transformation were introduced by Weber in 1947.[37] Weber said the charismatic leader was a transformer and the bureaucratic leader was transactional.

Similar concepts are Theory X and Theory Y management by Douglas McGregor in 1960[38]. Theory X is transactional and Theory Y is transformational.

The concept of transactional versus transformation leadership was using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) first proposed by Bass in 1978.[39]

Measurement of transactional versus transformation leadership using the was first proposed by Bass in 1985.[40]

Bass added the concept of laissez-faire leadership in 1997.[41][42]

Leadership styles may effect burnout of employees[43] and leaders themselves.[44][45].

Laissez-faire

Laissez-faire may be the most common of the destructive leadership patterns[46].

Laissez-faire, in health care, is associated with low subordinate job satisfaction and effort.[47]

Among physicians, management by passive exception and laissez-faire and may overlap.[48]

Transactional

When converting from transactional to empowering leadership, teams may transiently function more slowly.[49]

Management by exception: active

Management by exception: passive

Among physicians, management by passive exception and laissez-faire and may overlap and management by passive exception may be within laissez-faire.[48]

Transformational

This style may be the most effective in healthcare on employee responses and clinical outcomes.[50]

Transformational leadership may increase employee thriving and decrease burnout.[51]

Transformational style may better promote team learning behaviors than a transactional style.[52]

Compared to transformational leadership, in transformational leadership the leader's focus is on the employees rather than the organization.[53]

Transformational leadership may build on transactional leadership, "for transformational leadership to be effective,the leader must first build trust and follower responsiveness on the basis of tangible, transactional processes perceived as fair."[47]

Enabling or Empowering leadership

Enabling leadership attempts to bridge the needs to innovate and to produce[54][55]. Enabling leadership is based on complexity leadership theory.

Empowering leadership is defined variably[56][57][58] but includes:

  • Autonomy support[59]. Autonomy adds to mastery.[59] Perceived autonomy is associated with less burnout.[60]

Similar concepts are[61]:

  • Gardener leadership[62]
  • Servant leadership[63].
  • Three types of leadership that focus on giving employees decision making but may not include giving employees information to guide their decision making.
    • Shared Leadership[64][65]
    • Distributed leadership
    • Participative Leadership[66]
    • Democratic leadership

Empowering leadership may be compatible with AGILE development, which may conflict with command and control leadership[67].

Shared leadership may improve team performance according to a meta-analysis of 42 studies[68].

The World Health Organization recommends participatory leadership as one of 4 reforms needed for primary health care, “leadership reforms need to steer away from either ‘command and control’ or ‘laissez-faire disengagement’ towards a participatory style”[69]

In health care administration, physician leaders have difficulty relinquishing control and feel threatened by empowering others[70].

Measuring empowerment

The Empowering Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ) has been proposed to measure this style.[71] The ELQ measures either categories:

  1. Coaching
  2. Informing. Examination of the 6 questions in this scale suggest informing here does not fit with information sharing as proposed by complexity science.
  3. Leading By Example
  4. Showing Concern/Interacting with the Team
  5. Participative Decision-Making

Servant leadership can be measure with a 28-item or an abbreviated 7-item servant leadership scale[72]:

  1. My manager can tell if something work-related is going wrong
  2. My manager makes my career development a priority
  3. I would seek help from my manager if I had a personal problem
  4. My manager emphasizes the importance of giving back to the community
  5. My manager puts my best interests ahead of his/her own
  6. My manager gives me the freedom to handle difficult situations in the way that I feel is best
  7. My manager would NOT compromise ethical principles in order to achieve success

Benefits

Empowering leadership is associated with:

  • Performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity according to a meta-analysis as compared transformational leadership and leader–member exchange[73]
  • Creativity and innovative behavior (ρ = .36), contextual performance (ρ = .33), withdrawal behaviors (ρ = .28), and job performance (ρ = .25) according to a meta-analysis.[74]
  • Increased employee intrinsic motivation and creativity[75]
  • Increased productivity by implementing Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) as compared to initiating operational improvements[76]
  • Increased knowledge sharing and team efficacy which led to increased performance.[77]
  • Increases work engagement via work meaningfulness[78] or empowering leadership has been proposed for healthcare.[79][80][81]

Servant leadership behavior may be more effective than narcissism[82] and a serving culture is positively related both to restaurant performance and employee job performance[83].

Harm

Servant leadership may be costly to the leader[84]

Two contradictory faces of empowerment are [85]:

  • Enabling
  • Burdening

Modulators of impact of leadership styles

Characteristics of subordinates

Regulatory fit theory has found[86]:

  • Subordinates high in locomotion prefer leaders who have "'forceful' leadership style, represented by 'coercive', 'legitimate', and 'directive' kinds of strategic influence'
  • Subordinates high in assessment prefer leaders who have "'advisory' leadership style, represented by 'expert', 'referent', and 'participative' kinds of strategic influence'

Regulatory focus theory poses that people vary in their goals[87]:

  • Promotion-focus on hopes and accomplishments, also known as gains
  • Prevention-focus based on safety and responsibilities, also known as non-losses

Focus may also predict jealousy and envy[88].

Religion and faith in leadership

The role of religion and faith in leadership is being increasingly explored[89][90].


Leadership tactics related to worksite innovation

(see enabling leadership above)

Innovation can be classified as[91][92]:

  • "Inbound OI involves identifying and acquiring knowledge from external sources"
  • "Outbound OI involves exploitation of a firm’s knowledge and technology through commercialization in the external market"

Organizational cultural influences on innovation has been systematically reviewed[93]. Cultural attributes include:

  • Learning culture
  • Adhocracy culture
  • Clan rather than hierarchical culture
  • Low power distance culture

Complexity science has been proposed as a framework for health care organization since early this century.[94][95]

Complexity leadership theory describes three forms of leadership[96]:

  • Adaptive leadership
  • Administrative leadership
  • Enabling leadership

Anderson and McDaniel proposed in 2000 that key leadership tasks are[94][97]:

  1. Relationship building
  2. Loose coupling
  3. Complicating
  4. Diversifying
  5. Sense making (such as positive and negative feedback)
  6. Learning
  7. Improvising
  8. Thinking about the future

A model of of learning based on complexity science has been developed.[98]

Complexity Leadership Theory, also called Complex systems leadership theory, was proposed in 2006.[99][100][101] Based on this theory, Hazy has proposed leadership skills similar to Anderson and McDaniel:[102]

  1. Generative
  2. Administrative
  3. Community-building
  4. Information gathering
  5. Information using (such as positive and negative feedback)

Uhl-Bien has proposed that tasks of enabling leadership, which is an outgrowth of complexity leadership are[103]:

  • Brokerage - fostering of ideas that are triggered at the intersection of networks
  • Leveraging Adaptive Tension
  • Linking Up - "Creating or energizing network connections that enable information flows, or amplify movements, to feed and fuel emergence."
  • Tags and Attractors - "Listening for language (messages, stories) and symbols (pictures, objects) that ‘stick’ in a system and attract energy & using them to create tags to amplify and channel emergence"
  • Simple Rules
  • Network Closure

Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with open book management.

Complexity Leadership Theory may be seen as an evolution of Heifetz's adaptive leadership[104]

Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with knowledge-oriented leadership, which is defined as "an attitude or action, observed or imputed, that prompts the creation, sharing, and utilization of new knowledge in a way that seems to bring a shift in thinking and collective outcomes."[91] These leadership tactics can be measured with 3 concepts:

  • Knowledge-oriented Leadership
  • Knowledge Management Capability (technological, structural, cultural, application, acqusition, sharing)
    • Example: cultural (highest loading questions):
      • My organization takes advantage of new knowledge.
      • My organization quickly applies knowledge to critical competitive needs.
      • My organization quickly links sources of knowledge in solving problems.
  • Open Innovation

Complications of leadership

Power may lead cerebral changes in those given power[105]. This may lead to hubristic syndrome[106]

.

See also


References

  1. ↑ Anonymous (2024), Leadership (English). Medical Subject Headings. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  2. ↑ McAlearney, Ann Scheck. "Leadership development in healthcare: a qualitative study." Journal of Organizational Behavior 27.7 (2006): 967-982. doi:10.1002/job.417
  3. ↑ Rynes, S. L., Bartunek, J. M., & Daft, R. L. (2001). Across the Great Divide: Knowledge Creation and Transfer Between Practitioners and Academics. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 340–355. doi:10.5465/3069460
  4. ↑ Rynes, S. L., Brown, K. G., Colbert, A. E., & Hansen, R. A. (2002). Seven Common Misconceptions about Human Resource Practices: Research Findings versus Practitioner Beliefs and Executive Commentary. The Academy of Management Executive (1993-2005), 16(3), 92–103.
  5. ↑ Shapiro, D. L., & Kirkman, B. (2018). It’s Time to Make Business School Research More Relevant. Harvard Business Review.
  6. ↑ Shapiro, D. L., Kirkman, B. L., & Courtney, H. G. (2007). Perceived Causes and Solutions of the Translation Problem in Management Research. Academy of Management Journal, 50(2), 249–266. doi:10.5465/amj.2007.24634433
  7. ↑ Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Robert I. Sutton. "Evidence-based management." Harvard business review 84.1 (2006): 62.
  8. ↑ Kelloway, E. K. (2017). Toward evidence-based practice in organizational wellbeing. In The Routledge Companion to Wellbeing at Work. Routledge Handbooks Online. doi:10.4324/9781315665979
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Morrell, Kevin, and Mark Learmonth. "Evidence-based management." The Oxford Handbook of Management (2017): 419. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198708612.013.21
  10. ↑ Webster J, Flint A (2014). "Exit interviews to reduce turnover amongst healthcare professionals". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (8): CD006620. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006620.pub5. PMID 25133355.
  11. ↑ Charlier, S. D., Brown, K. G., & Rynes, S. L. (2011). Teaching Evidence-Based Management in MBA Programs: What Evidence Is There? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(2), 222–236. doi:10.5465/amle.10.2.zqr222
  12. ↑ Rynes, Sara L., Tamara L. Giluk, and Kenneth G. Brown. 2007. “The Very Separate Worlds of Academic and Practitioner Periodicals in Human Resource Management: Implications for Evidence-Based Management.” Academy of Management Journal 50 (5): 987–1008. doi:10.5465/amj.2007.27151939
  13. ↑ Aguinis, Herman, Ravi S. Ramani, Nawaf Alabduljader, James Bailey, and Joowon Lee. 2018. “A Pluralist Conceptualization of Scholarly Impact in Management Education: Students as Stakeholders.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, August. doi:10.5465/amle.2017.0488
  14. ↑ Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., & Brown, K. G. (2002). HR Professionals’ beliefs about effective human resource practices: correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41(2), 149–174. doi:10.1002/hrm.10029
  15. ↑ Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence‐informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management, 14(3), 207-222. doi:10.1111/1467-8551.00375
  16. ↑ Mayo. If humble people make better leaders, why do we fall for charismatic narcissists. Harvard Business Review. 2017
  17. ↑ Brunell AB, Gentry WA, Campbell WK, Hoffman BJ, Kuhnert KW, Demarree KG (2008). "Leader emergence: the case of the narcissistic leader". Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 34 (12): 1663–76. doi:10.1177/0146167208324101. PMID 18794326.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Van Velsor, E., Taylor, S., & Leslie, J. B. (1993). An examination of the relationships among self‐perception accuracy, self‐awareness, gender, and leader effectiveness. Human Resource Management, 32(2‐3), 249-263. doi:10.1002/hrm.3930320205
  19. ↑ Giambatista, Robert C., and J. Duane Hoover. "An Exploration of Overconfidence in Experiential Learning of Behavioral Skills among MBA Students." Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning 41 (2014).
  20. ↑ Bass, Bernard M.; Yammarino, Francis J. (1991). "Congruence of Self and Others' Leadership Ratings of Naval Officers for Understanding Successful Performance". Applied Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. 40 (4): 437–454. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1991.tb01002.x. ISSN 0269-994X.
  21. ↑ Atwater, Leanne E., and Francis J. Yammarino. "Does self‐other agreement on leadership perceptions moderate the validity of leadership and performance predictions?." Personnel Psychology 45.1 (1992): 141-164. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1992.tb00848.x
  22. ↑ Sheldon, Oliver J., David Dunning, and Daniel R. Ames. "Emotionally unskilled, unaware, and uninterested in learning more: Reactions to feedback about deficits in emotional intelligence." Journal of Applied Psychology 99.1 (2014): 125. doi:10.1037/a0034138
  23. ↑ McClean, Elizabeth, et al. "The social consequences of voice: An examination of voice type and gender on status and subsequent leader emergence." Academy of Management Journal (2017): amj-2016. doi:10.5465/amj.2016.0148
  24. ↑ Gerpott, F. H., Lehmann-Willenbrock, N., Silvis, J. D., & Van Vugt, M. (2017). In the eye of the beholder? An eye-tracking experiment on emergent leadership in team interactions. The Leadership Quarterly. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.11.003
  25. ↑ Van Vugt, M. (2006). Evolutionary Origins of Leadership and Followership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 354–371. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_5
  26. ↑ Miller, D., Xu, X., & Mehrotra, V. (2015). When is human capital a valuable resource? The performance effects of Ivy League selection among celebrated CEOs. Strategic Management Journal, 36(6), 930-944. doi:10.1002/smj.2251
  27. ↑ Miller, D., & Xu, X. (2016). A fleeting glory: Self-serving behavior among celebrated MBA CEOs. Journal of Management Inquiry, 25(3), 286-300. doi:10.1177/1056492615607975
  28. ↑ King, T., Srivastav, A., & Williams, J. (2016). What's in an education? Implications of CEO education for bank performance. Journal of Corporate Finance, 37, 287-308. doi:10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2016.01.003
  29. ↑ Miller, D., & Xu, X. (2017). MBA CEOs, Short-Term Management and Performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-16. doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3450-5
  30. ↑ Miller, D. (2017). Business education and executive opportunism-The case of MBAs. Revue française de gestion. doi:10.3166/rfg.2017.00143
  31. ↑ Charlier, S. D., Brown, K. G., & Rynes, S. L. (2011). Teaching Evidence-Based Management in MBA Programs: What Evidence Is There? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(2), 222–236. doi:10.5465/amle.10.2.zqr222
  32. ↑ Owens, B. P., Wallace, A. S., & Waldman, D. A. (2015). Leader narcissism and follower outcomes: The counterbalancing effect of leader humility. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(4), 1203. doi:10.1037/a0038698
  33. ↑ Mao, J., Chiu, C.-Y. (Chad), Owens, B. P., Brown, J. A., & Liao, J. (n.d.). Growing Followers: Exploring the Effects of Leader Humility on Follower Self-Expansion, Self-Efficacy, and Performance. Journal of Management Studies, 0(ja). Template:10.1111/joms.12395
  34. ↑ Hu, J., Erdogan, B., Jiang, K., Bauer, T. N., & Liu, S. (2018). Leader humility and team creativity: The role of team information sharing, psychological safety, and power distance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(3), 313–323. doi:10.1037/apl0000277
  35. ↑ Crowe D, Garman AN, Li CC, Helton J, Anderson MM, Butler P (2017). "Leadership development practices and hospital financial outcomes". Health Serv Manage Res. 30 (3): 140–147. doi:10.1177/0951484817702564. PMID 28391712.
  36. ↑ Lewin, Kurt, and Ronald Lippitt. “An Experimental Approach to the Study of Autocracy and Democracy: A Preliminary Note.” Sociometry, vol. 1, no. 3/4, 1938, pp. 292–300. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2785585.
  37. ↑ Weber, Max, Alexander Morell Henderson, and Talcott Parsons. "The theory of social and economic organization, 1st Amer." (1947). ISBN 0684836408
  38. ↑ McGregor D. The Human Side of Enterprise. 1st edition. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1960. 256 p. ISBN 978-0-07-045092-9
  39. ↑ Burns, J. M. G. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
  40. ↑ Bass, MB (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.
  41. ↑ Bass MB. The Future of Leadership in Learning Organizations. J of Leadership & Organizational Studies 2000 doi:10.1177%2F107179190000700302
  42. ↑ Bass, Bernard M. "Does the transactional–transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries?." American psychologist 52.2 (1997): 130. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.2.130
  43. ↑ Shanafelt TD, Gorringe G, Menaker R, Storz KA, Reeves D, Buskirk SJ; et al. (2015). "Impact of organizational leadership on physician burnout and satisfaction". Mayo Clin Proc. 90 (4): 432–40. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.01.012. PMID 25796117.
  44. ↑ Courtright SH, Colbert AE, Choi D (2014). "Fired up or burned out? How developmental challenge differentially impacts leader behavior". J Appl Psychol. 99 (4): 681–96. doi:10.1037/a0035790. PMID 24490967.
  45. ↑ Arnold KA, Connelly CE, Walsh MM, Ginis KA (2015). "Leadership styles, emotion regulation, and burnout". J Occup Health Psychol. 20 (4): 481–90. doi:10.1037/a0039045. PMID 25844908.
  46. ↑ Aasland; Merethe Schanke; Skogstad; Anders; Notelaers; Guy; Nielsen, Morten Birkeland; & Einarsen, Ståle. (2010). The Prevalence of Destructive Leadership Behaviour. British Journal of Management, 21(2), 438–452. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2009.00672.x
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Xirasagar S, Samuels ME, Stoskopf CH (2005). "Physician leadership styles and effectiveness: an empirical study". Med Care Res Rev. 62 (6): 720–40. doi:10.1177/1077558705281063. PMID 16330822.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Xirasagar S (2008). "Transformational, transactional among physician and laissez-faire leadership among physician executives". J Health Organ Manag. 22 (6): 599–613. doi:10.1108/14777260810916579. PMID 19579573.
  49. ↑ Lorinkova NM, Pearsall MJ, Sims HP. Examining the Differential Longitudinal Performance of Directive versus Empowering Leadership in Teams. ACAD MANAGE J. 2013 Apr 1;56(2):573–96.
  50. ↑ Spinelli RJ (2006). "The applicability of Bass's model of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership in the hospital administrative environment". Hosp Top. 84 (2): 11–8. doi:10.3200/HTPS.84.2.11-19. PMID 16708688.
  51. ↑ Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C (2016). "Transformational Leadership and Burnout: The Role of Thriving and Followers' Openness to Experience". J Occup Health Psychol. doi:10.1037/ocp0000051. PMID 27631555.
  52. ↑ Raes, Elisabeth, et al. "Facilitating team learning through transformational leadership." Instructional Science 41.2 (2013): 287-305. doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9228-3
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