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{{Acute bronchitis}}
{{Acute bronchitis}}
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==Overview==
==Overview==
'''Bronchitis''' is an [[inflammation]] of the large [[bronchus|bronchi]] (medium-size airways) in the [[lung]]s. It can lead to [[pneumonia]]. ''Acute bronchitis'' is usually caused by [[virus]]es or [[bacteria]] and may last several days or weeks.<ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |author=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493}}</ref> '''Acute bronchitis''' is characterized by [[cough]] and [[sputum]] (phlegm) production and symptoms related to the obstruction of the airways by the inflamed airways and the phlegm, such as shortness of breath and wheezing. Diagnosis is by clinical examination and sometimes [[microbiology|microbiological]] examination of the phlegm. Treatment may be with [[antibiotic]]s (if a bacterial infection is suspected), [[bronchodilator]]s (to relieve breathlessness) and other treatments.
Acute bronchitis is a self-limited [[lower respiratory tract]] infection that is more common in young children and the elderly, especially during cold seasons.<ref name="pmid11119400">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gonzales R, Sande MA |title=Uncomplicated acute bronchitis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=133 |issue=12 |pages=981–91 |year=2000 |pmid=11119400 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Viruses, especially [[influenza]], are the most common causative agents.<ref name="pmid2174179">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boldy DA, Skidmore SJ, Ayres JG |title=Acute bronchitis in the community: clinical features, infective factors, changes in pulmonary function and bronchial reactivity to histamine |journal=Respir Med |volume=84 |issue=5 |pages=377–85 |year=1990 |pmid=2174179 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9323784">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jonsson JS, Sigurdsson JA, Kristinsson KG, Guthnadóttir M, Magnusson S |title=Acute bronchitis in adults. How close do we come to its aetiology in general practice? |journal=Scand J Prim Health Care |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=156–60 |year=1997 |pmid=9323784 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Symptoms include: [[cough]], [[sputum]] production and [[wheezing]] as well as constitutional symptoms. It must be differentiated from [[pneumonia]], [[asthma]], and [[GERD]].<ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Reassurance and symptomatic medications are mainstays of acute bronchitis.<ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17543257">{{cite journal |vauthors=Graffelman AW, le Cessie S, Knuistingh Neven A, Wilemssen FE, Zonderland HM, van den Broek PJ |title=Can history and exam alone reliably predict pneumonia? |journal=J Fam Pract |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=465–70 |year=2007 |pmid=17543257 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Acute bronchitis may be prevented by hand hygiene, vaccination, and environmental control.<ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16428698">{{cite journal |vauthors=Braman SS |title=Chronic cough due to acute bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines |journal=Chest |volume=129 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=95S–103S |year=2006 |pmid=16428698 |doi=10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.95S |url=}}</ref> Smoking cessation plays a great role in reducing the course of the disease.<ref>[http://familydoctor.org/677.xml The American Academy of Family Physicians: Acute Bronchitis].  January 2006.  Accessed [[20 March]] [[2007]].</ref>
==Historical Perspective==
Acute bronchitis was first described by Charles Badham in 1808 in England.<ref name="pmid19343614">{{cite journal |vauthors=Klippe HJ, Kirsten D |title=[200 years of bronchitis--from 1808 to 2008] |language=German |journal=Pneumologie |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=228–30 |year=2009 |pmid=19343614 |doi=10.1055/s-0028-1119572 |url=}}</ref> In 1821, Dr. Rene Laennec, known as the "father of chest medicine," described bronchitis in details.<ref>terms(2016)https://lunginstitute.com/blog/history-of-chronic-bronchitis/accessed on September,13 2016</ref>
==Pathophysiology==
The causative agent is transmitted through the large and medium size [[airway]] tracts and inoculates the tracheobranchial [[epithelium]]. This leads to [[inflammation]], thickening, and increased [[mucus]] production in the airways.<ref name="pmid11119400">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gonzales R, Sande MA |title=Uncomplicated acute bronchitis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=133 |issue=12 |pages=981–91 |year=2000 |pmid=11119400 |doi= |url=}}</ref> [[Epithelial cells|Epithelial-cell]] [[desquamation]] and denuding of the airway to the level of the basement membrane in association with the presence of a [[lymphocytic]] cellular infiltrate have been demonstrated on microscopic examination.<ref name="pmid11119400">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gonzales R, Sande MA |title=Uncomplicated acute bronchitis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=133 |issue=12 |pages=981–91 |year=2000 |pmid=11119400 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
==Causes==
Common causes of acute bronchitis include [[viruses]], [[bacteria]] and environmental factors. Among them, [[influenza]] is common.<ref name="pmid2174179">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boldy DA, Skidmore SJ, Ayres JG |title=Acute bronchitis in the community: clinical features, infective factors, changes in pulmonary function and bronchial reactivity to histamine |journal=Respir Med |volume=84 |issue=5 |pages=377–85 |year=1990 |pmid=2174179 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9323784">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jonsson JS, Sigurdsson JA, Kristinsson KG, Guthnadóttir M, Magnusson S |title=Acute bronchitis in adults. How close do we come to its aetiology in general practice? |journal=Scand J Prim Health Care |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=156–60 |year=1997 |pmid=9323784 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
When bronchitis is prolonged, consider:
* [[Mycoplasma pneumonia]]
* [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]
* [[Bordetella pertussis]]
 
Also consider [[pneumonia]] and [[atypical pneumonia]].
 
== Differential Diagnosis of Acute Bronchitis==
Acute bronchitis must be differentiated from other diseases that may cause [[cough]], [[dyspnea]], and [[wheezing]]<ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref> including, [[pneumonia]],<ref name="pmid26277247">{{cite journal |vauthors=Prina E, Ranzani OT, Torres A |title=Community-acquired pneumonia |journal=Lancet |volume=386 |issue=9998 |pages=1097–108 |year=2015 |pmid=26277247 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60733-4 |url=}}</ref> [[Asthma]]<ref name="pmid21875745">{{cite journal |vauthors=Busse WW |title=Asthma diagnosis and treatment: filling in the information gaps |journal=J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=740–50 |year=2011 |pmid=21875745 |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2011.08.014 |url=}}</ref> [[Chronic bronchitis]],<ref name="pmid15219010">{{cite journal |vauthors=Celli BR, MacNee W |title=Standards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with COPD: a summary of the ATS/ERS position paper |journal=Eur. Respir. J. |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=932–46 |year=2004 |pmid=15219010 |doi= |url=}}</ref> and [[GERD]]<ref name="pmid19969583">{{cite journal |vauthors=Singh A |title=Asthma in older adults |journal=CMAJ |volume=181 |issue=12 |pages=929 |year=2009 |pmid=19969583 |pmc=2789137 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.109-2049 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16428686">{{cite journal |vauthors=Irwin RS, Baumann MH, Bolser DC, Boulet LP, Braman SS, Brightling CE, Brown KK, Canning BJ, Chang AB, Dicpinigaitis PV, Eccles R, Glomb WB, Goldstein LB, Graham LM, Hargreave FE, Kvale PA, Lewis SZ, McCool FD, McCrory DC, Prakash UB, Pratter MR, Rosen MJ, Schulman E, Shannon JJ, Smith Hammond C, Tarlo SM |title=Diagnosis and management of cough executive summary: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines |journal=Chest |volume=129 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=1S–23S |year=2006 |pmid=16428686 |pmc=3345522 |doi=10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.1S |url=}}</ref>
==Epidemiology==
Acute bronchitis is the ninth most common illness among outpatient visits in the U.S. It's prevalence depends on season of the year, vaccination status and outbreaks during that particular year. It is common among young children and the elderly.<ref name="pmid11209098">{{cite journal |vauthors=Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, Macfarlane R, Rose D, Weston V, Leinonen M, Saikku P, Myint S |title=Prospective study of the incidence, aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract illness in the community |journal=Thorax |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=109–14 |year=2001 |pmid=11209098 |pmc=1746009 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref><ref name=book1>Ferri FF. Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2016, 5 Books in 1. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2015.</ref>
==Risk factors==
The main determining risk factors for acute bronchitis are age, season of the year and the [[immunization]] status<ref name="pmid11119400">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gonzales R, Sande MA |title=Uncomplicated acute bronchitis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=133 |issue=12 |pages=981–91 |year=2000 |pmid=11119400 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.
==Natural History==
If left untreated, acute bronchitis usually resolves within 2 weeks but may last up to 2 months.<ref name="pmid11119400">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gonzales R, Sande MA |title=Uncomplicated acute bronchitis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=133 |issue=12 |pages=981–91 |year=2000 |pmid=11119400 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16798599">{{cite journal |vauthors=Landau LI |title=Acute and chronic cough |journal=Paediatr Respir Rev |volume=7 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S64–7 |year=2006 |pmid=16798599 |doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2006.04.172 |url=}}</ref> Prognosis is generally excellent and majority of patients recover after 5-10 days.<ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref> Recurrent episodes of acute bronchitis in subsequent years occur in 20% of patients.<ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
==Diagnosis==
'''History and symptoms'''<ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17543257">{{cite journal |vauthors=Graffelman AW, le Cessie S, Knuistingh Neven A, Wilemssen FE, Zonderland HM, van den Broek PJ |title=Can history and exam alone reliably predict pneumonia? |journal=J Fam Pract |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=465–70 |year=2007 |pmid=17543257 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* Bronchial irritation symptoms including: [[cough]], [[hoarseness]], and [[phlegm]] production
 
* Constitutional symptoms including: [[Chest pain]], [[Fever]], [[malaise]], and [[Myalgia]]
'''Physical examination'''
* Acute bronchitis presents with signs of prolonged expiration, [[wheezing]], [[fever]] and abnormal breath sounds.<ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref>
'''Laboratory Tests'''
* Diagnostic tests are rarely needed to confirm the diagnosis of acute bronchitis. In very specific conditions, serologic tests, viral cultures or sputum analyses may be applied. Generally, inflammatory markers, such as [[CRP]], rise during the course of acute bronchitis. [[Procalcitonin]] is helpful to differentiate bacterial from other causes.
'''Chest x-ray'''
* Normal lung view is the typical finding on chest x-ray.<ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11255532">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE, Cooper RJ, Hickner JM, Hoffman JR, Sande MA |title=Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis: background |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=521–9 |year=2001 |pmid=11255532 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
==Treatment==
'''Medical therapy'''
* Reassurance and symptomatic therapy are the mainstay of treatment. [[NSAIDs]], [[albuterol]] and [[Antitussive|antitussives]] may help alleviate symptoms.
* The most important treatment aspect is to '''''NOT''''' routinely prescribe antibiotics.<ref name="pmid15972565">{{cite journal |vauthors=Little P, Rumsby K, Kelly J, Watson L, Moore M, Warner G, Fahey T, Williamson I |title=Information leaflet and antibiotic prescribing strategies for acute lower respiratory tract infection: a randomized controlled trial |journal=JAMA |volume=293 |issue=24 |pages=3029–35 |year=2005 |pmid=15972565 |doi=10.1001/jama.293.24.3029 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24585130">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith SM, Fahey T, Smucny J, Becker LA |title=Antibiotics for acute bronchitis |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD000245 |year=2014 |pmid=24585130 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000245.pub3 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16428698">{{cite journal |vauthors=Braman SS |title=Chronic cough due to acute bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines |journal=Chest |volume=129 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=95S–103S |year=2006 |pmid=16428698 |doi=10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.95S |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17108344">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wenzel RP, Fowler AA |title=Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=20 |pages=2125–30 |year=2006 |pmid=17108344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp061493 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17002029">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wong DM, Blumberg DA, Lowe LG |title=Guidelines for the use of antibiotics in acute upper respiratory tract infections |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=956–66 |year=2006 |pmid=17002029 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* [[Azithromycin]] can treat:
** [[Mycoplasma pneumonia]]
** [[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]
** [[Bordetella pertussis]]
 
'''Primary prevention'''
* The major preventive measures for acute bronchitis include: hands hygiene, environmental control, wearing physical barriers, and vaccination for preventable pathogens, such as [[influenza]] and [[pertussis]]<ref name="pmid21121518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Albert RH |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=1345–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21121518 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16428698">{{cite journal |vauthors=Braman SS |title=Chronic cough due to acute bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines |journal=Chest |volume=129 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=95S–103S |year=2006 |pmid=16428698 |doi=10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.95S |url=}}</ref>.
'''Secondary prevention'''
* Smoking cessation or reduction is helpful in reducing the severity of acute bronchitis symptoms.<ref>[http://familydoctor.org/677.xml The American Academy of Family Physicians: Acute Bronchitis].  January 2006. Accessed [[20 March]] [[2007]].</ref>


==References==
==References==
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Seyedmahdi Pahlavani, M.D. [2]; Nate Michalak, B.A.

Overview

Acute bronchitis is a self-limited lower respiratory tract infection that is more common in young children and the elderly, especially during cold seasons.[1][2][3] Viruses, especially influenza, are the most common causative agents.[4][2][5] Symptoms include: cough, sputum production and wheezing as well as constitutional symptoms. It must be differentiated from pneumonia, asthma, and GERD.[3] Reassurance and symptomatic medications are mainstays of acute bronchitis.[2][6] Acute bronchitis may be prevented by hand hygiene, vaccination, and environmental control.[3][7] Smoking cessation plays a great role in reducing the course of the disease.[8]

Historical Perspective

Acute bronchitis was first described by Charles Badham in 1808 in England.[9] In 1821, Dr. Rene Laennec, known as the "father of chest medicine," described bronchitis in details.[10]

Pathophysiology

The causative agent is transmitted through the large and medium size airway tracts and inoculates the tracheobranchial epithelium. This leads to inflammation, thickening, and increased mucus production in the airways.[1] Epithelial-cell desquamation and denuding of the airway to the level of the basement membrane in association with the presence of a lymphocytic cellular infiltrate have been demonstrated on microscopic examination.[1]

Causes

Common causes of acute bronchitis include viruses, bacteria and environmental factors. Among them, influenza is common.[4][2][5]

When bronchitis is prolonged, consider:

Also consider pneumonia and atypical pneumonia.

Differential Diagnosis of Acute Bronchitis

Acute bronchitis must be differentiated from other diseases that may cause cough, dyspnea, and wheezing[3] including, pneumonia,[11] Asthma[12] Chronic bronchitis,[13] and GERD[14][15]

Epidemiology

Acute bronchitis is the ninth most common illness among outpatient visits in the U.S. It's prevalence depends on season of the year, vaccination status and outbreaks during that particular year. It is common among young children and the elderly.[16][2][17]

Risk factors

The main determining risk factors for acute bronchitis are age, season of the year and the immunization status[1][2][3].

Natural History

If left untreated, acute bronchitis usually resolves within 2 weeks but may last up to 2 months.[1][18] Prognosis is generally excellent and majority of patients recover after 5-10 days.[2] Recurrent episodes of acute bronchitis in subsequent years occur in 20% of patients.[3]

Diagnosis

History and symptoms[2][6]

Physical examination

  • Acute bronchitis presents with signs of prolonged expiration, wheezing, fever and abnormal breath sounds.[3][2]

Laboratory Tests

  • Diagnostic tests are rarely needed to confirm the diagnosis of acute bronchitis. In very specific conditions, serologic tests, viral cultures or sputum analyses may be applied. Generally, inflammatory markers, such as CRP, rise during the course of acute bronchitis. Procalcitonin is helpful to differentiate bacterial from other causes.

Chest x-ray

  • Normal lung view is the typical finding on chest x-ray.[3][19]

Treatment

Medical therapy

Primary prevention

  • The major preventive measures for acute bronchitis include: hands hygiene, environmental control, wearing physical barriers, and vaccination for preventable pathogens, such as influenza and pertussis[3][7].

Secondary prevention

  • Smoking cessation or reduction is helpful in reducing the severity of acute bronchitis symptoms.[23]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Gonzales R, Sande MA (2000). "Uncomplicated acute bronchitis". Ann. Intern. Med. 133 (12): 981–91. PMID 11119400.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Wenzel RP, Fowler AA (2006). "Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis". N. Engl. J. Med. 355 (20): 2125–30. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp061493. PMID 17108344.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Albert RH (2010). "Diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchitis". Am Fam Physician. 82 (11): 1345–50. PMID 21121518.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Boldy DA, Skidmore SJ, Ayres JG (1990). "Acute bronchitis in the community: clinical features, infective factors, changes in pulmonary function and bronchial reactivity to histamine". Respir Med. 84 (5): 377–85. PMID 2174179.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Jonsson JS, Sigurdsson JA, Kristinsson KG, Guthnadóttir M, Magnusson S (1997). "Acute bronchitis in adults. How close do we come to its aetiology in general practice?". Scand J Prim Health Care. 15 (3): 156–60. PMID 9323784.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Graffelman AW, le Cessie S, Knuistingh Neven A, Wilemssen FE, Zonderland HM, van den Broek PJ (2007). "Can history and exam alone reliably predict pneumonia?". J Fam Pract. 56 (6): 465–70. PMID 17543257.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Braman SS (2006). "Chronic cough due to acute bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 95S–103S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.95S. PMID 16428698.
  8. ↑ The American Academy of Family Physicians: Acute Bronchitis. January 2006. Accessed 20 March 2007.
  9. ↑ Klippe HJ, Kirsten D (2009). "[200 years of bronchitis--from 1808 to 2008]". Pneumologie (in German). 63 (4): 228–30. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1119572. PMID 19343614.
  10. ↑ terms(2016)https://lunginstitute.com/blog/history-of-chronic-bronchitis/accessed on September,13 2016
  11. ↑ Prina E, Ranzani OT, Torres A (2015). "Community-acquired pneumonia". Lancet. 386 (9998): 1097–108. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60733-4. PMID 26277247.
  12. ↑ Busse WW (2011). "Asthma diagnosis and treatment: filling in the information gaps". J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 128 (4): 740–50. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.08.014. PMID 21875745.
  13. ↑ Celli BR, MacNee W (2004). "Standards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with COPD: a summary of the ATS/ERS position paper". Eur. Respir. J. 23 (6): 932–46. PMID 15219010.
  14. ↑ Singh A (2009). "Asthma in older adults". CMAJ. 181 (12): 929. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-2049. PMC 2789137. PMID 19969583.
  15. ↑ Irwin RS, Baumann MH, Bolser DC, Boulet LP, Braman SS, Brightling CE, Brown KK, Canning BJ, Chang AB, Dicpinigaitis PV, Eccles R, Glomb WB, Goldstein LB, Graham LM, Hargreave FE, Kvale PA, Lewis SZ, McCool FD, McCrory DC, Prakash UB, Pratter MR, Rosen MJ, Schulman E, Shannon JJ, Smith Hammond C, Tarlo SM (2006). "Diagnosis and management of cough executive summary: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 1S–23S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.1S. PMC 3345522. PMID 16428686.
  16. ↑ Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, Macfarlane R, Rose D, Weston V, Leinonen M, Saikku P, Myint S (2001). "Prospective study of the incidence, aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract illness in the community". Thorax. 56 (2): 109–14. PMC 1746009. PMID 11209098.
  17. ↑ Ferri FF. Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2016, 5 Books in 1. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2015.
  18. ↑ Landau LI (2006). "Acute and chronic cough". Paediatr Respir Rev. 7 Suppl 1: S64–7. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2006.04.172. PMID 16798599.
  19. ↑ Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE, Cooper RJ, Hickner JM, Hoffman JR, Sande MA (2001). "Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis: background". Ann. Intern. Med. 134 (6): 521–9. PMID 11255532.
  20. ↑ Little P, Rumsby K, Kelly J, Watson L, Moore M, Warner G, Fahey T, Williamson I (2005). "Information leaflet and antibiotic prescribing strategies for acute lower respiratory tract infection: a randomized controlled trial". JAMA. 293 (24): 3029–35. doi:10.1001/jama.293.24.3029. PMID 15972565.
  21. ↑ Smith SM, Fahey T, Smucny J, Becker LA (2014). "Antibiotics for acute bronchitis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD000245. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000245.pub3. PMID 24585130.
  22. ↑ Wong DM, Blumberg DA, Lowe LG (2006). "Guidelines for the use of antibiotics in acute upper respiratory tract infections". Am Fam Physician. 74 (6): 956–66. PMID 17002029.
  23. ↑ The American Academy of Family Physicians: Acute Bronchitis. January 2006. Accessed 20 March 2007.

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