Charges

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Editor-In-Chief: Henry A. Hoff

File:Chargon and spinon separation.png
The locus of the abrupt change in conductance that clearly moves away from the 1D parabola is the chargon. Credit: Y. Jompol, C. J. B. Ford, J. P. Griffiths, I. Farrer, G. A. C. Jones, D. Anderson, D. A. Ritchie, T. W. Silk and A. J. Schofield.{{fairuse}}

Charge is usually thought of as a property of matter that is responsible for electrical phenomena, existing in a positive or negative form.

Theoretical charges

Def. "the quantity of unbalanced positive or negative ions in or on an object; measured in coulombs"[1] is called charge, or electric charge.

Chargons

Main articles: Charges/Chargons and Chargons

Def. "a quasiparticle produced as a result of electron spin-charge separation"[2] is called a chargon.

A chargon possesses the charge of an electron without a spin.

A spinon, in turn, possesses the spin of an electron without charge. The suggestion is that an elementary particle such as a positron may consist of at least two parts: spin and charge.

In the figure at the top of the page "the 1D parabola tracks the spin excitation (spinon)."[3]

Def. a "quasiparticle, corresponding to the orbital energy of an electron, which can result from an electron apparently ‘splitting’ under certain conditions"[4] is called an orbiton.

Both an orbiton and a spinon are kinetic or kinematic concepts applied to an electron.

Def. "a discrete particle having zero rest mass, no electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime"[5] is called a photon.

An electron may be thought of as a stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative one.

Electrons

Main articles: Charges/Electrons and Electrons
File:Electron Interaction with Matter.svg
Illustration shows the phenomena that occur from the interaction of highly energetic electrons with matter, also depicting the pear shape interaction volume which is typically observed in this type of interactions. Credit: Claudionico~commonswiki.{{free media}}

“The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative charge, equal to -1.60217646x10-19 C. Current, or the rate of flow of charge, is defined such that one coulomb, so 1/-1.60217646x10-19, or 6.24150974x1018 electrons flowing past a point per second give a current of one ampere. The charge on an electron is often given as -e. Note that charge is always considered positive, so the charge of an electron is always negative."[6]

Def. the "quantity of matter which a body contains, irrespective of its bulk or volume"[7] is called mass.

"The electron has a mass of 9.10938188x10-31 kg, or about 1/1840 that of a proton. The mass of an electron is often written as me."[6]

"When working, these values can usually be safely approximated to:

-e = -1.60x10-19 C
me = 9.11x10-31kg”[6]

It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle.[8][9] The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is a half-integer value in units of ħ, which means that it is a fermion.

Positrons

Main articles: Charges/Positrons and Positrons

Def. "[t]he antimatter equivalent of an electron, having the same mass but a positive charge"[10] is called a positron.

Muons

File:Muon.svg
This lepton box provides information about muons. Credit: MissMJ.
File:Muon Decay.svg
This is a Feynman Diagram of the most common of Muon Decays. Credit: Richard Feynman.

"TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light."[11]

The muon from the Greek letter mu (μ) used to represent it) is an elementary particle similar to the electron, with unitary negative electric charge (−1) and a spin of ​1⁄2. Together with the electron, the tau, and the three neutrinos, it is classified as a lepton. As is the case with other leptons, the muon is not believed to have any sub-structure at all (i.e., is not thought to be composed of any simpler particles).

The muon is an unstable subatomic particle with a mean lifetime of 2.2 μs. This comparatively long decay lifetime (the second longest known) is due to being mediated by the weak interaction. The only longer lifetime for an unstable subatomic particle is that for the free neutron, a baryon particle composed of quarks, which also decays via the weak force. Muon decay produces three particles, an electron plus two neutrinos of different types.

Like all elementary particles, the muon has a corresponding antiparticle of opposite charge (+1) but equal mass and spin: the antimuon (also called a positive muon). Muons are denoted by Template:SubatomicParticle and antimuons by Template:SubatomicParticle.

Tauons

File:Feynman diagram of decay of tau lepton.svg
Common possible decays of the Tau lepton by emission of a W boson are shown in a Feynman diagram. Credit: JabberWok and Time3000.
File:Arrival direction of the anomalous CR event and air shower.jpg
The arrival direction of the anomalous CR event and air shower are described. Credit: P. W. Gorham, B. Rotter, P. Allison, O. Banerjee, L. Batten, J. J. Beatty, K. Bechtol, K. Belov, D. Z. Besson, W. R. Binns, V. Bugaev, P. Cao, C. C. Chen, C. H. Chen, P. Chen, J. M. Clem, A. Connolly, L. Cremonesi, B. Dailey, C. Deaconu, P. F. Dowkontt, B. D. Fox, J. W. H. Gordon, C. Hast, B. Hill, K. Hughes, J. J. Huang, R. Hupe, M. H. Israel, A. Javaid, J. Lam, K. M. Liewer, S. Y. Lin, T.C. Liu, A. Ludwig, L. Macchiarulo, S. Matsuno, C. Miki, K. Mulrey, J. Nam, C. J. Naudet, R. J. Nichol, A. Novikov, E. Oberla, M. Olmedo, R. Prechelt, S. Prohira, B. F. Rauch, J. M. Roberts, A. Romero-Wolf, J. W. Russell, D. Saltzberg, D. Seckel, H. Schoorlemmer, J. Shiao, S. Stafford, J. Stockham, M. Stockham, B. Strutt, G. S. Varner, A. G. Vieregg, S. H. Wang, S. A. Wissel.{{fairuse}}
File:Balloons on Ice Launch - 2 takes flight in Antarctica (30561119904).jpg
The second of three ANITA missions as part of NASA’s Antarctica Long Duration Balloon Flight Campaign was successfully launched at 8:10 a.m. EDT, Dec. 2, 2016. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from Greenbelt, MD, USA.{{free media}}

Because of their short lifetime, the range of the tau is mainly set by their decay length, which is too small for bremsstrahlung to be noticeable. Their penetrating power appears only at ultra-high velocity / ultra-high energy (above PeV energies), when time dilation extends their path-length.[12]

The tau was anticipated in a 1971 paper by Yung-Su Tsai.[13] Providing the theory for this discovery, the tau was detected in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977 by Martin Lewis Perl with his and Tsai's colleagues at the SLAC-Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBL) group.[14]

"We have discovered 64 events of the form

Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle + at least two undetected particles

for which we have no conventional explanation."[14]

The symbol τ was derived from the Greek τρίτον (triton, meaning "third" in English), since it was the third charged lepton discovered.[15]

The tau is the only lepton that can decay into hadrons – the other leptons do not have the necessary mass. Like the other decay modes of the tau, the hadronic decay is through the weak nuclear force (weak interaction).[16]

Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle.

The branching ratio of the dominant hadronic tau decays are:[17]

  • 25.52% for decay into a charged pion, a neutral pion, and a tau neutrino;
  • 10.83% for decay into a charged pion and a tau neutrino;
  • 9.30% for decay into a charged pion, two neutral pions, and a tau neutrino;
  • 8.99% for decay into three charged pions (of which two have the same electrical charge) and a tau neutrino;
  • 2.70% for decay into three charged pions (of which two have the same electrical charge), a neutral pion, and a tau neutrino;
  • 1.05% for decay into three neutral pions, a charged pion, and a tau neutrino.

The branching ratio of the common purely leptonic tau decays are:[17]

  • 17.82% for decay into a tau neutrino, electron and electron antineutrino;
  • 17.39% for decay into a tau neutrino, muon and muon antineutrino.

The tau lepton is predicted to form exotic atoms like other charged subatomic particles. One of such, called tauonium by the analogy to muonium, consists of an antitauon and an electron: Template:SubatomicParticleTemplate:SubatomicParticle.[18]

Another one is an onium atom Template:SubatomicParticleTemplate:SubatomicParticle called true tauonium and is difficult to detect due to tau's extremely short lifetime at low (non-relativistic) energies needed to form this atom. Its detection is important for quantum electrodynamics.[18]

An "upward traveling, radio-detected cosmic-ray-like impulsive event [has] characteristics closely matching an extensive air shower. This event, observed in the third flight of the Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna (ANITA), a NASA-sponsored long-duration balloon payload, is consistent with a similar event reported in a previous flight. These events may be produced by the atmospheric decay of an upward-propagating τ-lepton produced by a ντ interaction, although their relatively steep arrival angles create tension with the standard model (SM) neutrino cross section. Each of the two events have a posteriori background estimates of ≲10−2 events. If these are generated by τ-lepton decay, then either the charged-current ντ cross section is suppressed at EeV energies, or the events arise at moments when the peak flux of a transient neutrino source was much larger than the typical expected cosmogenic background neutrinos."[19]

The upward traveling event is detected and described in the image and graph on the lower right. "Top: Interferometric map of the arrival direction of the anomalous CR event 15717147. Bottom: ANITA combined amplitude spectral density (ASD) for the event, from 50-800 MHz, including data from the ANITA Low Frequency Antenna (ALFA). A simulated upward-propagating extensive air shower spectral-density curve is overlain."[19]

Neutrinos

Main articles: Charges/Neutrinos and Neutrinos
File:FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg
In this photograph is recorded "[t]he first use of a hydrogen bubble chamber to detect neutrinos, on November 13, 1970. A neutrino hit a proton in a hydrogen atom. The collision occurred at the point where three tracks emanate on the right of the photograph. Credit: Argonne National Laboratory.

A neutrino is an electrically neutral, weakly interacting elementary subatomic particle[20] with half-integer spin. Neutrinos do not carry electric charge, which means that they are not affected by the electromagnetic forces that act on charged particles such as electrons and protons. Neutrinos are affected only by the weak sub-atomic force, of much shorter range than electromagnetism, and gravity, which is relatively weak on the subatomic scale. They are therefore able to travel great distances through matter without being affected by it.

"If neutrinos have negligible rest mass, the present density expected for relic neutrinos from the big bang is nν = 110 (Tγ/2.7 K)3 cm–3 for each two-component species. This is of order the photon density nγ, differing just by a factor 3/11 (i.e. a factor 3/4 because neutrinos are fermions rather than bosons, multiplied by 4/11, the factor by which the neutrinos are diluted when e+–e– annihilation boosts the photon density). This conclusion holds for non-zero masses, provided that mvc2 is far below the thermal energy (~ 5 MeV) at which neutrinos decoupled from other species and that the neutrinos are stable for the Hubble time. Comparison with the baryon density, related to Ω via nb = 1.5 x 10–5 Ωb h2 cm–3, shows that neutrinos outnumber baryons by such a big factor that they can be dynamically dominant over baryons even if their masses are only a few electron volts. In fact, a single species of neutrino would yield a contribution to Ω of Ωv = 0.01 h–2 (mv)eV, so if h = 0.5, only 25 eV is sufficient to provide the critical density."[21]

"Neutrinos of nonzero mass would be dynamically important not only for the expanding universe as a whole but also for large bound systems such as clusters of galaxies. This is because they would now be moving slowly: if the universe had cooled homogeneously, primordial neutrinos would now be moving at around 200 (mv)-1eV km s–1. They would be influenced even by the weak (~ 10–5 c2) gravitational potential fluctuations of galaxies and clusters. If the three (or more) types of neutrinos have different masses, then the heaviest will obviously be gravitationally dominant, since the numbers of each species should be the same."[21]

Photons

Main articles: Charges/Photons and Photons

Def. "a discrete particle having zero rest mass, no electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime"[5] is called a photon.

Intermediate bosons

File:Beta Negative Decay.svg
The Feynman diagram for the beta-negative decay of a neutron into a proton. Credit: Richard Feynman.

The Template:SubatomicParticle and Template:SubatomicParticle bosons are elementary particles with a spin of 1.

Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + X,
Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle, where X denotes the fragmentation of spectator partons.[22]

"The W field should exhibit a universal coupling strength for all the fundamental lepton doublets [...]. This implies - apart from small phase-space corrections - equality of the branching ratios of the decay processes"

Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle,
Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle,
Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle,
Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle.[22]
Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle,[22]
Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle,[22]
Template:SubatomicParticle → Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle + Template:SubatomicParticle.

Weak interactions

Main articles: Charges/Interactions/Weak and Weak interactions

It "is the weak process

p + p → 2H + e+ + ve

that controls the main burning reactions in the sun."[22]

Hypotheses

Main article: Hypotheses
  1. Electron-positron annihilation is the reorientation of the spinons and chargons to generate two identical photons, or 0.511 MeV γ rays, that are out of phase with each other and have their own kinematics including the spinons and chargons.
  2. Nucleons are composed of electrons, positrons and neutrinos.

Acknowledgements

The content on this page was first contributed by: Henry A. Hoff.

Initial content for this page in some instances came from Wikiversity.

See also

References

  1. ↑ electric charge. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 24 July 2015. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
  2. ↑ Xhienne (30 April 2012). chargon. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
  3. ↑ Y. Jompol, C. J. B. Ford, J. P. Griffiths, I. Farrer, G. A. C. Jones, D. Anderson, D. A. Ritchie, T. W. Silk and A. J. Schofield (2009). "Probing spin-charge separation in a Tomonaga-Luttinger liquid" (PDF). Science. 325 (5940): 597–601. arXiv:1002.2782. Bibcode:2009Sci...325..597J. doi:10.1126/science.1171769. Retrieved 2015-08-08. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Widsith (19 April 2012). orbiton. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Poccil (18 October 2004). photon. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Materials in electronics/The Electron. San Francisco, California. July 13, 2009. Retrieved 2012-06-02.
  7. ↑ mass. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. August 2, 2013. Retrieved 2013-08-12.
  8. ↑ E.J. Eichten, M.E. Peskin, M. Peskin (1983). "New Tests for Quark and Lepton Substructure". Physical Review Letters. 50 (11): 811–814. Bibcode:1983PhRvL..50..811E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.811.
  9. ↑ G. Gabrielse; et al. (2006). "New Determination of the Fine Structure Constant from the Electron g Value and QED". Physical Review Letters. 97 (3): 030802(1–4). Bibcode:2006PhRvL..97c0802G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.030802.
  10. ↑ positron. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. July 12, 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
  11. ↑ Francis Halzen, Todor Stanev, Gaurang B. Yodh (1997). "γ ray astronomy with muons". Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology. 55 (7): 4475–9. arXiv:astro-ph/9608201. Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.4475H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475. Retrieved 2013-01-18. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ D. Fargion; P.G. de Sanctis Lucentini; M. de Santis; M. Grossi (2004). "Tau air showers from Earth". The Astrophysical Journal. 613 (2): 1285–1301. arXiv:hep-ph/0305128. Bibcode:2004ApJ...613.1285F. doi:10.1086/423124.
  13. ↑ Yung-Su Tsai (1971-11-01). "Decay correlations of heavy leptons in e+ + e− → l+ + l−". Physical Review D. 4 (9): 2821. Bibcode:1971PhRvD...4.2821T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.4.2821.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Perl, M. L.; Abrams, G.; Boyarski, A.; Breidenbach, M.; Briggs, D.; Bulos, F.; Chinowsky, W.; Dakin, J.; Feldman, G. (1975). "Evidence for Anomalous Lepton Production in Template:SubatomicParticleTemplate:SubatomicParticle Annihilation". Physical Review Letters. 35 (22): 1489. Bibcode:1975PhRvL..35.1489P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1489.
  15. ↑ M.L. Perl (1977). "Evidence for, and properties of, the new charged heavy lepton" (PDF). In T. Thanh Van. Proceedings of the XII Rencontre de Moriond.
  16. ↑ Riazuddin (2009). "Non-standard interactions" (PDF). NCP 5th Particle Physics Sypnoisis. 1 (1): 1–25.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 J. Beringer et al (Particle Data Group) (2012). "Review of Particle Physics". Physical Review D. 86 (1): 581–651. Bibcode:2012PhRvD..86a0001B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.86.010001. |chapter= ignored (help)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Brodsky, Stanley J.; Lebed, Richard F. (2009). "Production of the Smallest QED Atom: True Muonium (μ+μ−)". Physical Review Letters. 102 (21): 213401. arXiv:0904.2225. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.102u3401B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.213401. PMID 19519103.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 P. W. Gorham, B. Rotter, P. Allison, O. Banerjee, L. Batten, J. J. Beatty, K. Bechtol, K. Belov, D. Z. Besson, W. R. Binns, V. Bugaev, P. Cao, C. C. Chen, C. H. Chen, P. Chen, J. M. Clem, A. Connolly, L. Cremonesi, B. Dailey, C. Deaconu, P. F. Dowkontt, B. D. Fox, J. W. H. Gordon, C. Hast, B. Hill, K. Hughes, J. J. Huang, R. Hupe, M. H. Israel, A. Javaid, J. Lam, K. M. Liewer, S. Y. Lin, T.C. Liu, A. Ludwig, L. Macchiarulo, S. Matsuno, C. Miki, K. Mulrey, J. Nam, C. J. Naudet, R. J. Nichol, A. Novikov, E. Oberla, M. Olmedo, R. Prechelt, S. Prohira, B. F. Rauch, J. M. Roberts, A. Romero-Wolf, J. W. Russell, D. Saltzberg, D. Seckel, H. Schoorlemmer, J. Shiao, S. Stafford, J. Stockham, M. Stockham, B. Strutt, G. S. Varner, A. G. Vieregg, S. H. Wang, S. A. Wissel (14 March 2018). "Observation of an Unusual Upward-going Cosmic-ray-like Event in the Third Flight of ANITA". arXiv. arXiv:1803.05088. Retrieved 29 September 2018.
  20. ↑ Neutrino, In: Glossary for the Research Perspectives of the Max Planck Society. Max Planck Gesellschaft. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Martin J. Rees (1984). "Is the Universe flat?". Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy. 5 (4): 331–48. Retrieved 2013-12-18. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Carlo Rubbia (1985). "Experimental Observation of the Intermediate Vector Bosons W+, W−, and Z0" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 57 (3): 699–744. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.57.699. Retrieved 2016-09-23. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

External links

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