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{{Toxic shock syndrome}}
{{Toxic shock syndrome}}
 
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==Overview==
==Overview==
Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) is characterized by sudden onset of [[fever]], chills, [[vomiting]], [[diarrhea]], muscle aches and [[rash]]. It can rapidly progress to severe and intractable [[hypotension]] and multisystem dysfunction. Desquamation, particularly on the palms and soles can occur 1-2 weeks after onset of the illness.
A positive [[History and Physical examination|history]] of tampon usage is suggestive of [[Staphylococcus|staphylococcal]] [[toxic shock syndrome]](TSS) and a positive history of recent [[Extremities|extremity]] trauma is suggestive of [[Streptococcus|Streptococcal]] TSS (the most common causes of disease). The most common symptoms of TSS include fever, [[erythroderma]], and general viral infection symptoms like [[myalgia]]. Less common symptom of TSS include [[desquamation]] (which occur after 1-3 weeks of disease onset).
 
==History and Symptoms==
 
=== [[Staphylococcus|Staphylococcal]] [[TSS]] ===
Staphylococcal TSS can be devided into 2 major categories based on the disease cause: [[Menstrual cycle|menstrual]] and non-menstrual illness.<ref name="pmid2122225">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wharton M, Chorba TL, Vogt RL, Morse DL, Buehler JW |title=Case definitions for public health surveillance |journal=MMWR Recomm Rep |volume=39 |issue=RR-13 |pages=1–43 |year=1990 |pmid=2122225 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Although these 2 types are pretty much difference from each other in the terms of cause and pathogenesis, their clinical manifestations are pretty much the same.
 
clinical manifestations of Staphylococcal TSS include a variety of shock symptoms, and hypersensitivity that is associated with the disease:
* [[Hypotension]]: It usually happens in a rapid onset, with a systolic blood pressure of ≤90 mmHg for adults or less than fifth percentile by age for children <16 years of age. This hypotension can be unresponsive to fluid infusion even large amounts of isotonic intravenous fluids and can persist for several days.
 
* [[Skin Changes|Skin manifestations]]: these manifestations are usually due to hypersensitivity reactions. they can be very variable. The initial erythroderma can involves both  mucous membranes and skin. It's main characteristics involve diffuse, red, macular rash resembling sunburn that can also involve the palms and soles.<ref name="urlTintinallis Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 8th edition - Judith Tintinalli, J. Stapczynski, O. John Ma, David M. Cline, Garth Meckler - Google Books">{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNKLCgAAQBAJ&q=It%27s+main+characteristics+involve+diffuse,+red,+macular+rash+resembling+sunburn+that+can+also+involve+the+palms+and+soles.&dq=It%27s+main+characteristics+involve+diffuse,+red,+macular+rash+resembling+sunburn+that+can+also+involve+the+palms+and+soles.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlq-LXoODTAhVF7CYKHQ3aDkoQ6AEIJzAA |title=Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 8th edition - Judith Tintinalli, J. Stapczynski, O. John Ma, David M. Cline, Garth Meckler - Google Books |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> It can be fleeting and subtle. Conjunctival-scleral hemorrhage and hyperemia of the vaginal and oropharyngeal mucosa can be found while mucosal involvement is associated with skin manifestations. Superficial ulcerations can also occur on the mucous membranes especially in more advanced forms of the disease. it can lead to petechiae, vesicles, and bullae development. Non-pitting edema can develop as a result of increases in interstitial fluid. Late-onset skin findings include pruritic maculopapular rash and palm/soles desquamation which particularly begins 1-3 weeks after disease beginning. as a matter of late onset characteristic of dequamation, it can not be used as a good diagnostic feature. Hair and nail loss may also occur in some cases one to two months after the onset of disease, with regrowth by six months.


* [[Multiorgan system failure|Multiorgan system involvement]]: All body organ systems can be involved during disease, which can lead to specific organ related symptoms. Many patients complaint of generalized myalgias and weakness as their primary chief complaints. In these patients, usually elevated levels of creatine phosphokinase (CPK) concentration can be detected. Gastrointestinal complaints are also common, particularly watery diarrhea. Both prerenal and intrinsic renal failure can occur. Renal failure can lead to metabolic abnormalities such as hypocalcemia, hyponatremia, hypoalbuminemia, and hypophosphatemia.<ref name="pmid7282746">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chesney RW, Chesney PJ, Davis JP, Segar WE |title=Renal manifestations of the staphylococcal toxic-shock syndrome |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=583–8 |year=1981 |pmid=7282746 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
==History==
It is necessary to obtain a detailed and thorough [[History & Symptoms|history]] from the patient to diagnose the type of [[TSS]] and determine its severeness. It provides insight into cause, precipitating factors and associated [[Comorbidity|comorbid]] conditions. Complete history will help determine the correct therapy and helps in determining the [[prognosis]]. [[Toxic shock syndrome|TSS]] patients may be [[Disorientation|disoriented]] due to [[encephalopathy]] complication therefore the patient interview may be difficult. In such cases [[History & Symptoms|history]] from the care givers or the family members may need to be obtained. Specific histories about the symptoms (duration, onset, progression), associated symptoms, and past medical history have to be obtained.


* [[Encephalopathy]]: Cerebral edema as a complication of TSS can lead to encephalopathy which is fatal and manifested by disorientation, confusion, or seizure activity<ref name="pmid3722844">{{cite journal |vauthors=Barrett JA, Graham DR |title=Toxic shock syndrome presenting as encephalopathy |journal=J. Infect. |volume=12 aissue=3 |pages=276–8 |year=1986 |pmid=3722844 |doi= |url=}}</ref>,<ref name="pmid3362331">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith DB, Gulinson J |title=Fatal cerebral edema complicating toxic shock syndrome |journal=Neurosurgery |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=598–9 |year=1988 |pmid=3362331 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. Other central nervous system (CNS) findings may be present rarely in patients for instance persistent neuropsychological sequels can develop such as headaches, memory loss, and poor concentration <ref name="pmid7091958">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosene KA, Copass MK, Kastner LS, Nolan CM, Eschenbach DA |title=Persistent neuropsychological sequelae of toxic shock syndrome |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=96 |issue=6 Pt 2 |pages=865–70 |year=1982 |pmid=7091958 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. Other symptoms that can be found in patients with [[encephalopathy]] due to TSS include [[Pleural effusion|pleural effusions]] and [[pulmonary edema]], [[cardiac dysfunction]], [[hepatic failure]], and [[CBC|hematologic abnormalities]], especially [[anemia]] and [[thrombocytopenia]].<ref name="pmid2928649">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olson RD, Stevens DL, Melish ME |title=Direct effects of purified staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 on myocardial function of isolated rabbit atria |journal=Rev. Infect. Dis. |volume=11 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S313–5 |year=1989 |pmid=2928649 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
Specific areas of focus when obtaining a history from the patient include:
*Recent [[fever]]
*[[Tampon]] usage<ref name="pmid2122225">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wharton M, Chorba TL, Vogt RL, Morse DL, Buehler JW |title=Case definitions for public health surveillance |journal=MMWR Recomm Rep |volume=39 |issue=RR-13 |pages=1–43 |year=1990 |pmid=2122225 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  
*Recent [[trauma]] history
*Generalized associated [[Symptom|symptoms]] like [[Myalgia|myalgias]] and [[weakness]]
*Recent history of [[surgery]]


The isolation of S. aureus is not required for the diagnosis of staphylococcal TSS, but isolation of GAS is absolutely necessary for the diagnosis of group A streptococcal causes of TSS
==General symptoms==
These [[symptoms]] are common and can be found in all different causes of [[Toxic shock syndrome|TSS]]. These are usually related to the [[shock]] itself and the [[hypersensitivity]] reaction which is related to bacterial [[antigen]]:


=== [[Streptococcus|Streptococcal]] [[Toxic shock syndrome|TSS]] ===
=== Common Symptoms ===
STSS may occur with infection at any site, but most often occurs in association with infection of a cutaneous lesion. Many invasive streptococcal infections have no known portal of entry.2659990. 3890787. Signs of toxicity and a rapidly progressive clinical course are characteristic and the case fatality rate may exceed 50%. NF may follow local blunt or penetrating trauma to the skin. It occurs most commonly in the lower limb, followed by the upper limb.9236481.
*[[Fever]]
*Non-specific signs:
**[[Chills]]
**[[Malaise]]
**[[Sore Throat|Sore throat]]
**[[Fatigue]]
**[[Myalgia|Myalgias]]
**[[Headache]]
**[[Abdominal pain]], severe watery [[diarrhea]], [[vomiting]]
**[[Dizziness]] or [[syncope]]
*Diffuse [[erythroderma]]
*[[Edema]] of the extremities
*[[Shortness of breath]] and [[orthopnea]] (as a result of pulmonary edema and pleural effusion secondary to the sock complication)
*[[Headaches]] (as a result of [[diarrhea]] and [[renal failure]])


Patients with GAS-associated NF may have only subtle signs of severity at initial presentation and can therefore be difficult to differentiate from a simple cellulitis. Severe pain and tenderness that is disproportionate to the physical findings are the clinical hallmark that differentiates NF from more superficial infection. Tense edema and the development of bullae that seem bluish as the disease progresses are also useful signs, but are often late signs and indicate significant tissue necrosis. Several studies have reported that patients with NF often have a history of recent blunt trauma.10323689. 17697787.  
=== Less common symptoms ===
*[[Desquamation]] of [[Palms of the hands|palms]] and [[Sole (foot)|soles]] which particularly begins 1-3 weeks after disease beginning<ref name="urlTintinallis Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 8th edition - Judith Tintinalli, J. Stapczynski, O. John Ma, David M. Cline, Garth Meckler - Google Books">{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNKLCgAAQBAJ&q=It%27s+main+characteristics+involve+diffuse,+red,+macular+rash+resembling+sunburn+that+can+also+involve+the+palms+and+soles.&dq=It%27s+main+characteristics+involve+diffuse,+red,+macular+rash+resembling+sunburn+that+can+also+involve+the+palms+and+soles.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlq-LXoODTAhVF7CYKHQ3aDkoQ6AEIJzAA |title=Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 8th edition - Judith Tintinalli, J. Stapczynski, O. John Ma, David M. Cline, Garth Meckler - Google Books |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
*Neuropsychologic symptoms:
**[[Confusion]]
**[[Agitation]]
**[[Memory loss]]
**[[Disorientation]]
**Poor [[concentration]] (as a result of [[Toxic shock syndrome|TSS]] complications e.g. [[encephalopathy]])<ref name="pmid2928649">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olson RD, Stevens DL, Melish ME |title=Direct effects of purified staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 on myocardial function of isolated rabbit atria |journal=Rev. Infect. Dis. |volume=11 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S313–5 |year=1989 |pmid=2928649 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
**[[Somnolence]]
**[[Irritability]]
**[[Agitation]]
**[[Hallucination|Hallucinations]]
*[[Stupor]] or [[coma]] <ref name="pmid7091958">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosene KA, Copass MK, Kastner LS, Nolan CM, Eschenbach DA |title=Persistent neuropsychological sequelae of toxic shock syndrome |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=96 |issue=6 Pt 2 |pages=865–70 |year=1982 |pmid=7091958 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Dyspnea]] (as a result of [[pulmonary edema]] and [[pleural effusion]])
*[[Muscle cramps]] (as a result of [[metabolic disorders]] due to [[renal failure]])<ref name="pmid7282746">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chesney RW, Chesney PJ, Davis JP, Segar WE |title=Renal manifestations of the staphylococcal toxic-shock syndrome |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=583–8 |year=1981 |pmid=7282746 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
==Specific history and symptoms==


who reported that skeletal muscle injury resulted in increased cellular vimentin expression, which enhanced binding of GAS to skeletal muscle cells. The case fatality rate of GAS-associated NF is 30% to 50%, and most deaths occur in the first 48 hours after presentation, reflecting the rapidly progressive nature of the disease and between 30% and 50% of patients with GAS-associated NF develop STSS.
=== Staphylococcal TSS ===
* Tampon usage


Clinical manifestations of toxic shock syndrome include fever, hypotension, and skin manifestations [3,4]. Additional symptoms and signs include chills, malaise, headache, sore throat, myalgias, fatigue, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and orthostatic dizziness or syncope.
=== Streptococcal TSS ===
* History of [[Skin lesions|cutaneous lesion]], specially with local [[blunt trauma]] injury and [[Penetrating wound|penetrating tissue]] trauma<ref name="pmid2659990">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stevens DL, Tanner MH, Winship J, Swarts R, Ries KM, Schlievert PM, Kaplan E |title=Severe group A streptococcal infections associated with a toxic shock-like syndrome and scarlet fever toxin A |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=321 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |year=1989 |pmid=2659990 |doi=10.1056/NEJM198907063210101 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3890787">{{cite journal |vauthors=Adams EM, Gudmundsson S, Yocum DE, Haselby RC, Craig WA, Sundstrom WR |title=Streptococcal myositis |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=145 |issue=6 |pages=1020–3 |year=1985 |pmid=3890787 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


The symptoms and signs of TSS develop rapidly, usually in otherwise healthy individuals. The median interval between the onset of menstruation and TSS in menstrual cases is two to three days
* [[Cyanosis]]
* Bullae in [[extremities]] with a history of trauma<ref name="pmid17697787">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nuwayhid ZB, Aronoff DM, Mulla ZD |title=Blunt trauma as a risk factor for group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis |journal=Ann Epidemiol |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=878–81 |year=2007 |pmid=17697787 |pmc=4029051 |doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.05.011 |url=}}</ref>


=== [[Clostridium|Clostridium sordellii]] ===
=== Clostridium sordellii TSS ===
this is a rare cause of TSS but maybe the most dangerous cause with a rapid onset. There are a variety of symptoms include skin infection, bacteremia, and organ specific infections such as pneumonia, empyema, endocarditis, septic arthritis, and surgical site infection.17577829. 1457666. 2026891. ''C. sordellii'' toxic shock is characterized by rapid onset of severe illness with shock; the illness frequently occurs in previously healthy individuals. 2801850. The clinical presentation generally consists of systemic manifestations including edema, effusions, profound leukocytosis, and hemoconcentration, followed by shock and multiorgan failure. wiki.  
* Flu like symptoms
* History of [[pneumonia]]<ref name="pmid17083018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aldape MJ, Bryant AE, Stevens DL |title=Clostridium sordellii infection: epidemiology, clinical findings, and current perspectives on diagnosis and treatment |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=43 |issue=11 |pages=1436–46 |year=2006 |pmid=17083018 |doi=10.1086/508866 |url=}}</ref>
* History of surgery
* [[Surgical site infection]]<ref name="pmid17577829">{{cite journal |vauthors=Foroulis CN, Gerogianni I, Kouritas VK, Karestsi E, Klapsa D, Gourgoulianis K, Petinaki E |title=Direct detection of Clostridium sordellii in pleural fluid of a patient with pneumonic empyema by a broad-range 16S rRNA PCR |journal=Scand. J. Infect. Dis. |volume=39 |issue=6-7 |pages=617–9 |year=2007 |pmid=17577829 |doi=10.1080/00365540601105798 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1457666">{{cite journal |vauthors=Spera RV, Kaplan MH, Allen SL |title=Clostridium sordellii bacteremia: case report and review |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=950–4 |year=1992 |pmid=1457666 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


Early symptoms are often nonspecific and may include nausea, vomiting, lethargy, influenza-like symptoms, and abdominal tenderness 15516429. 9155682.


Progression from early symptoms to severe disease occurs within hours, and mortality is high 17083018. The systemic nature of the presentation with the paucity of localizing symptoms may make early diagnosis difficult.
===Various Causes of TSS and their Symptoms===
{| class="wikitable"
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Type
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Symptoms
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;"|[[Staphylococcus|Staphylococcal]] [[Toxic shock syndrome|TSS]]
|Menstural


Rapid development of generalized and massive tissue edema [8,19].
| rowspan="2" |[[Skin Changes|Skin manifestations]]: [[Erythroderma]]


●Pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal effusions are common [2,8]. These develop due to capillary leak from toxin-mediated changes in the vascular endothelium, together with hypoalbuminemia [2].
Conjunctival-scleral hemorrhage


●Profound leukocytosis (leukemoid reaction) consisting of white blood cell (WBC) count >50,000 cells/microL, which can increase to 200,000 cells/microL within 48 hours [2-4,8,40]. In general, an increased percentage of mature and immature neutrophils and increased absolute numbers of lymphocytes and monocytes are observed. The presence of leukemoid reaction is highly predictive of mortality [8]. In one study, patients who died had average WBC count of >75,000 cells/mm3; survivors had average WBC count of 18,000 cells/mm3 [8].
Hyperemia of the vaginal


●Hemoconcentration is common; hematocrit levels up to 80 percent have been reported [2,4,5,15,39,40].
Hyperemia of oropharyngeal mucosa
|-
|Non-menstural
|-
| align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;"|[[Streptococcus|Streptococcal]] [[Toxic shock syndrome|TSS]]
|[[Necrotizing Fasciitis|GAS-related NF]]
|
* Skin and [[Skin lesions|cutaneous lesion]]<nowiki/>s:
** [[Necrotizing Fasciitis|Necrotizing fasciitis]] (NF)
** [[Edema|Tense edema]]
** Bluish bullae with disease progression


●Absence of fever [2,4,8].
* General Shock Signs:
** [[Fever]]
** [[Hypotension]]
** [[Chills]]
** [[Malaise]]
** [[Sore Throat|Sore throat]]
** [[Fatigue]]
** [[Myalgia|Myalgias]]
** [[Headache]]
** [[Abdominal pain]]
** [[Diarrhea]]
** [[Vomiting]]
** [[Orthostatic hypotension|Orthostatic]] [[hypotension]]
** [[Dizziness]] or [[syncope]]
|-
| align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;"|[[Clostridium|Clostridium sordellii]] [[Toxic shock syndrome|TSS]]
| -
|
* Nonspecific primary symptoms that may be misdiagnosed with [[viral infections]] like [[flu]]:
** [[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]]
** [[Nausea and vomiting|Vomiting]]
** [[Lethargy]]
** [[Influenza-like symptoms]]
** [[Abdominal tenderness]])


●Refractory hypotension and tachycardia
* [[Skin infection]], [[bacteremia]], and organ specific infections:
** [[Pneumonia]]
** [[Empyema]]
** [[Endocarditis]]
** [[Septic arthritis]]
** [[Surgical site infection]]
|}


==References==
==References==
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mahshid Mir, M.D. [2]

Overview

A positive history of tampon usage is suggestive of staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome(TSS) and a positive history of recent extremity trauma is suggestive of Streptococcal TSS (the most common causes of disease). The most common symptoms of TSS include fever, erythroderma, and general viral infection symptoms like myalgia. Less common symptom of TSS include desquamation (which occur after 1-3 weeks of disease onset).

History

It is necessary to obtain a detailed and thorough history from the patient to diagnose the type of TSS and determine its severeness. It provides insight into cause, precipitating factors and associated comorbid conditions. Complete history will help determine the correct therapy and helps in determining the prognosis. TSS patients may be disoriented due to encephalopathy complication therefore the patient interview may be difficult. In such cases history from the care givers or the family members may need to be obtained. Specific histories about the symptoms (duration, onset, progression), associated symptoms, and past medical history have to be obtained.

Specific areas of focus when obtaining a history from the patient include:

General symptoms

These symptoms are common and can be found in all different causes of TSS. These are usually related to the shock itself and the hypersensitivity reaction which is related to bacterial antigen:

Common Symptoms

Less common symptoms

Specific history and symptoms

Staphylococcal TSS

  • Tampon usage

Streptococcal TSS

Clostridium sordellii TSS


Various Causes of TSS and their Symptoms

Type Symptoms
Staphylococcal TSS Menstural Skin manifestations: Erythroderma

Conjunctival-scleral hemorrhage

Hyperemia of the vaginal

Hyperemia of oropharyngeal mucosa

Non-menstural
Streptococcal TSS GAS-related NF
Clostridium sordellii TSS -

References

  1. ↑ Wharton M, Chorba TL, Vogt RL, Morse DL, Buehler JW (1990). "Case definitions for public health surveillance". MMWR Recomm Rep. 39 (RR-13): 1–43. PMID 2122225.
  2. ↑ "Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 8th edition - Judith Tintinalli, J. Stapczynski, O. John Ma, David M. Cline, Garth Meckler - Google Books".
  3. ↑ Olson RD, Stevens DL, Melish ME (1989). "Direct effects of purified staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 on myocardial function of isolated rabbit atria". Rev. Infect. Dis. 11 Suppl 1: S313–5. PMID 2928649.
  4. ↑ Rosene KA, Copass MK, Kastner LS, Nolan CM, Eschenbach DA (1982). "Persistent neuropsychological sequelae of toxic shock syndrome". Ann. Intern. Med. 96 (6 Pt 2): 865–70. PMID 7091958.
  5. ↑ Chesney RW, Chesney PJ, Davis JP, Segar WE (1981). "Renal manifestations of the staphylococcal toxic-shock syndrome". Am. J. Med. 71 (4): 583–8. PMID 7282746.
  6. ↑ Stevens DL, Tanner MH, Winship J, Swarts R, Ries KM, Schlievert PM, Kaplan E (1989). "Severe group A streptococcal infections associated with a toxic shock-like syndrome and scarlet fever toxin A". N. Engl. J. Med. 321 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1056/NEJM198907063210101. PMID 2659990.
  7. ↑ Adams EM, Gudmundsson S, Yocum DE, Haselby RC, Craig WA, Sundstrom WR (1985). "Streptococcal myositis". Arch. Intern. Med. 145 (6): 1020–3. PMID 3890787.
  8. ↑ Nuwayhid ZB, Aronoff DM, Mulla ZD (2007). "Blunt trauma as a risk factor for group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis". Ann Epidemiol. 17 (11): 878–81. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.05.011. PMC 4029051. PMID 17697787.
  9. ↑ Aldape MJ, Bryant AE, Stevens DL (2006). "Clostridium sordellii infection: epidemiology, clinical findings, and current perspectives on diagnosis and treatment". Clin. Infect. Dis. 43 (11): 1436–46. doi:10.1086/508866. PMID 17083018.
  10. ↑ Foroulis CN, Gerogianni I, Kouritas VK, Karestsi E, Klapsa D, Gourgoulianis K, Petinaki E (2007). "Direct detection of Clostridium sordellii in pleural fluid of a patient with pneumonic empyema by a broad-range 16S rRNA PCR". Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 39 (6–7): 617–9. doi:10.1080/00365540601105798. PMID 17577829.
  11. ↑ Spera RV, Kaplan MH, Allen SL (1992). "Clostridium sordellii bacteremia: case report and review". Clin. Infect. Dis. 15 (6): 950–4. PMID 1457666.


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