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'''For patient information, click Cryptogenic Cirrhosis'''
'''For patient information, click Cryptogenic Cirrhosis'''


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==Historical Perspective==
==Historical Perspective==
{{Family tree/start}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | C01 |-| C02 |-| C03 | |C01= '''Beginning of the mankind'''|C02= '''''2.5 million years ago'''''|C03= Hunting and eating meat, fruits, seeds, and nuts}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01= '''10,000 years ago'''|G02= '''''Neolithic period'''''|G03= Discovery of agriculture. <br>New [[antigens]] have been introduced to human diet<br> (protein from cow, goat, and donkey milk, bird eggs, and various cereals).<br> First cases of celiac disease. }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | A01 |-| B01 |-| B02 |-| B03 | |A01= '''Discovery'''|B01= '''2,000 years ago'''|B02= '''''Aretaeus'''''<br>A Cappadocian physician|B03=Described celiac disease, calling it '''''koiliakos'''''.<br> It came from Greek word ''''''koelia''''' ([[abdomen]]), representing a "suffering abdomen"}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | C01 |-| C02 |-| C03 | |C01= '''1812'''|C02= '''''Mathew Baillie'''''<br>A Scottish physician|C03=Described some adult patients experiencing [[malnutrition]] and [[bloating]] along with [[chronic diarrhea]] }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01= '''1887'''|G02= '''''Samuel Gee'''''<br>A famous English [[pediatrician]]|G03= Gave a detailed explanation of celiac disease, presenting a lecture on "Celiac affection"}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | E01 |-| E02 |-| E03 | |E01= '''1924'''|E02= '''''Sidney Haas'''''<br>A New York city [[pediatrician]]|E03= Used a new [[Dietetics|dietetic]] therapeutic option for 10 children with celiac disease, '''''the banana diet'''''}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01= '''1949'''|G02= '''''Wood'''''<br>An Australian [[gastroenterologist]]|G03= Invented a simple flexible biopsy tube which could be used for GI biopsies without requiring [[X-ray]] or [[gastroscope]] assistance}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | D01 |-| D02 |-| D03 | |D01= '''1950'''|D02= '''''Wim Dicke'''''<br>A Dutch [[pediatrician]]|D03= Suggested in his doctoral thesis that elimination of [[wheat]], rye, and [[Oat|oats]] from diet would result in cure of celiac disease}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01= '''1950'''|G02= ''''' Wim Dicke's colleagues,<br> Weijers and Van de Kamer'''''|G03= Presented [[stool]] [[fat]] measurement as a method to diagnose celiac disease}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | F01 |-| F02 |-| F03 | |F01= '''1954'''|F02= ''''' John Paulley'''''<br>An English [[pathologist]] from Ipswich |F03= Discovered the [[pathophysiology]] of celiac disease, that is [[histological]] abnormalities in [[small intestine]] lining}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | A01 |-| G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |A01='''Diagnosis'''|G01= '''1955'''|G02= ''''' Marcelo Royer'''''<br>An Argentinian [[gastroenterologist]] from Buenos Aires|G03= Developed a technique for [[duodenal]] [[biopsy]] under [[fluoroscopic]] vision}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01='''1956'''|G02= ''''' Margot Shiner'''''<br>A German-British [[gastroenterologist]]|G03= Developed another technique for [[duodenal]] [[biopsy]] under [[fluoroscopic]] vision}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01='''1964'''|G02= ''''' Berger'''''<br>A Switzerland [[immunologist]]|G03= Detected and reported anti [[gliadin]] [[antibodies]] in children with celiac disease}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01='''1969'''|G02= ''''' European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology<br> (now ESPGHAN)'''''|G03= Gave the diagnostic tool of “'''''Interlaken criteria'''''”, which was used for about 20 years}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01='''1971'''|G02= ''''' Seah'''''<br>A British physician|G03= Discovered an [[Autoantibody|auto-antibody]], the anti-reticulin; showing that [[antibody]] is not necessarily an anti-food [[protein]]}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree | | | | | | G01 |-| G02 |-| G03 | |G01='''1983'''|G02= ''''' Chorzelski'''''<br>A Polish [[dermatologist]] from Warsaw|G03= Discovered anti-[[endomysium]] [[antibodies]] and [[dermatitis herpetiformis]] in celiac disease patients}}
{{Family tree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{Family tree |boxstyle=text-align: center; | | S01 |-| S02 |-| S03 |-| S04 | |S01='''Treatment'''|S02= '''Recently'''|S03= ''''' Main guidelines'''''|S04= • [[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] (AHRQ, 2004)<ref name="urlCeliac Disease: Summary - AHRQ Evidence Report Summaries - NCBI Bookshelf">{{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11885/ |title=Celiac Disease: Summary - AHRQ Evidence Report Summaries - NCBI Bookshelf |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><br>• [[American Gastroenterological Association]] (AGA, 2006)<ref name="pmid17087937">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rostom A, Murray JA, Kagnoff MF |title=American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) Institute technical review on the diagnosis and management of celiac disease |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=131 |issue=6 |pages


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==
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=== Prognosis ===
=== Prognosis ===
The prognosis of cryptogenic cirrhosis depends on various factors including the stage of cirrhosis at diagnosis, the presence of complications, and the response to treatment. Early diagnosis and intervention may improve outcomes, but cryptogenic cirrhosis can still carry a significant risk of morbidity and mortality.
The prognosis of cryptogenic cirrhosis, like cirrhosis due to other etiologies, depends on various factors including the stage of cirrhosis at diagnosis, the presence of complications, and the response to treatment. An added factor influencing the prognosis of CC is the absence of an underlying cause, adding complexity and uncertainty to the selection and implementation of suitable therapies and interventions. Early diagnosis and intervention may improve outcomes, but cryptogenic cirrhosis still carries a significant risk of morbidity and mortality.


== Diagnosis ==  
== Diagnosis ==  
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There are no standardized diagnostic criteria for CC and it is best defined by exclusion.
There are no standardized diagnostic criteria for CC and it is best defined by exclusion.


===History===
=== History and Symptoms ===
A directed history should be obtained to ascertain
Cryptogenic cirrhosis presents with symptoms similar to [[Cirrhosis history and symptoms|cirrhosis]] stemming from other known causes. These may include fatigue, jaundice, abdominal swelling, easy bruising, and confusion. Additionally, individuals might experience weight loss, weakness, and a loss of appetite. It's crucial to note that while the symptoms may resemble those of cirrhosis due to identified causes, the underlying origin in cryptogenic cirrhosis remains unknown.
 
=== Symptoms ===
"Type symptom here" is pathognomonic of the "type disease name here".
 
"Type non specific symptoms" may be present.


===Past Medical History===
===Past Medical History===
Diagnosing CC requires a rigorous past medical history evaluations and the presence of any metabolic disorder needs to be ruled to diagnose the condition.  
Diagnosing CC requires a rigorous past medical history evaluations and the presence of any metabolic disorder needs to be ruled to diagnose the condition.  


===Family History===
===Laboratory Findings===
 
[[Cirrhosis laboratory findings|Laboratory tests]] for cryptogenic cirrhosis typically reveal patterns consistent with cirrhosis of other known etiologies. These may include elevated liver enzymes, such as ALT and AST, as well as abnormal bilirubin levels. Additionally, markers of liver function, such as albumin and prothrombin time, may be impaired.
=== Physical Examination ===
 
==== Appearance of the Patient ====
 
====Vital Signs====
 
====Skin====
 
====Head====
 
==== Eyes ====
 
==== Ear ====
 
====Nose====
 
====Mouth====
 
====Throat ====
 
==== Heart ====
 
==== Lungs ====
 
==== Abdomen ====
 
==== Extremities ====
 
==== Neurologic ====
 
====Genitals====
 
==== Other ====
 
=== Laboratory Findings ===  
 
==== Electrolyte and Biomarker Studies ====
 
==== Electrocardiogram ====
 
==== Chest X Ray ====
 
====CT ====
 
==== MRI ====
 
==== Echocardiography or Ultrasound ====
 
==== Other Imaging Findings ====


=== Other Diagnostic Studies ===
=== Imaging Findings ===
[[Cirrhosis MRI|Imaging studies]] like ultrasound or MRI may show signs of liver damage, such as nodularity or irregularity. CT scans may further corroborate these findings, revealing features like liver atrophy, hypertrophy of the caudate lobe, and evidence of portal hypertension.
[[File:Screenshot (245).jpg|none|thumb|The images are sourced from an article published in Radiology Case Reports (Volume 19; Authors: Wajeeh Ur Rehman, Eeman Ahmad, Arsalan Nadeem, Shahzaib Ahmed, Imam Ali Shah; Title: 'Cryptogenic cirrhosis: Decoding diagnostic challenges through radiological insights'; Pages: 2735-2740; Copyright Elsevier, 2024).<ref name="pmid386807433">{{cite journal|author=Rehman WU, Ahmad E, Nadeem A, Ahmed S, Shah IA|title=Cryptogenic cirrhosis: Decoding diagnostic challenges through radiological insights.|journal=Radiol Case Rep|year=2024|volume=19|issue=7|pages=2735-2740|pmid=38680743|doi=10.1016/j.radcr.2024.03.069|pmc=11047172|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=38680743}}</ref>[[File:Pre-contrast CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis in Cryptogenic Cirrhosis.jpg|thumb|Pre-contrast CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis depicts an irregular nodular margin of the liver (green arrowhead), hypertrophy of the caudate lobe (orange arrow), and the presence of ascites (red arrow).<ref name="pmid38680743" />]][[File:Arterial phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis in Cryptogenic Cirrhosis.jpg|thumb|Arterial phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis shows no enhancing focal lesions in the liver. However, it reveals irregular nodular margins (green arrowhead) and hypertrophy of the caudate lobe (orange arrow), along with the presence of ascites (red arrow).<ref name="pmid38680743">{{cite journal|author=Rehman WU, Ahmad E, Nadeem A, Ahmed S, Shah IA|title=Cryptogenic cirrhosis: Decoding diagnostic challenges through radiological insights.|journal=Radiol Case Rep|year=2024|volume=19|issue=7|pages=2735-2740|pmid=38680743|doi=10.1016/j.radcr.2024.03.069|pmc=11047172|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=38680743}}</ref>]][[File:Portal-venous phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis in Cryptogenic Cirrhosis.jpg|thumb|Portal/venous phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis illustrates heterogeneous liver parenchyma without evident washout. Signs suggestive of a cirrhotic liver include hypertrophy of the caudate lobe and collateral vessels around the perigastric (green circle) and perisplenic (blue circle) areas, accompanied by the presence of ascites.<ref name="pmid38680743" />]][[File:Portal-venous phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis in Liver Cirrhosis.png|thumb|Portal/venous phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis, the portal vein (green arrow) and its branches appear patent without any signs of thrombosis or obstruction. Furthermore, there are no enhancing focal lesions detected in the liver.<ref name="pmid38680743" />]]]]


== Treatment ==
== Treatment ==

Latest revision as of 17:11, 8 May 2024

WikiDoc Resources for Cryptogenic cirrhosis

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For patient information, click Cryptogenic Cirrhosis

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Imam Ali Shah, MBBS [2]

Synonyms and keywords: Idiopathic Cirrhosis

Overview

Cryptogenic cirrhosis (CC) is defined as cirrhosis of unknown origin. It is a diagnosis of exclusion and is only made after extensive investigative workup when the underlying cause of cirrhosis remains elusive. The cause of this condition is, by definition, unknown; however, there are correlations suggesting that metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) plays a significant role . Advances in investigative methods, understanding of liver disease, and acknowledgment of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) as a plausible cause have led to a significant decrease in the use of this term.

Historical Perspective

Pathophysiology

Genetics

Genetic factors are increasingly being implicated in the occurrence of CC. Studies have found that thrombophilic and fibrogenic genetic factors and alterations in genes encoding hepatic lipid metabolism regulatory proteins are of particular importance in development and progression of CC.[1] [2] Genome-wide association studies have uncovered loss-of-function genetic variants that offer protection against liver diseases including CC. Of note is the loss-of-function mutation in one copy of the CIDEB gene, which was identified in a large exome sequencing study to be associated with a lower risk of cirrhosis from any cause.[3]

Associated Conditions

Cryptogenic cirrhosis has a strong association with metabolic disorders, including hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes, and hyperuricemia. However metabolic-dysfunction associated steatohepatitis must be ruled out to diagnose the condition.

Gross and Microscopic Pathology

CC has a similar histopathological findings to non-cryptogenic cirrhosis and is characterized by nodular liver morphology due to fibrous septa formation, dividing the liver into regenerative hepatocyte nodules microscopically. Fibrosis is prominent, disrupting the liver's architecture, with associated hepatocellular changes such as atrophy, hypertrophy, and fatty infiltration. Inflammation and necrosis may be evident, along with features like Mallory-Denk bodies, megamitochondria, and iron deposition, reflecting the chronic liver injury and regenerative processes ongoing within the liver.

Causes

Although the exact cause of cryptogenic cirrhosis remains uncertain, accumulating evidence and research increasingly suggest that metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) may be the underlying factor.[4] Several studies have demonstrated the underlying role of genetic factors in occurrence and progression of CC.[5] [6]

Differentiating Cryptogenic Cirrhosis from other Diseases

While there's limited data explicitly differentiating the characteristics of cryptogenic cirrhosis from non-cryptogenic cirrhosis,studies have highlighted the following discernible differences between the two regarding the associations and complications of cirrhosis:

Metabolic Syndrome: Cryptogenic cirrhosis is significantly more prevalent in individuals with underlying metabolic derangements, including hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes, and coronary artery disease.

Cardiovascular disease: CC is associated with a higher incidence of cardiovascular disease.

Cancer: Studies have shown higher and earlier occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and extrahepatic cancer in cryptogenic cirrhosis.[7] HCC also frequently presents at an advanced stage in patients with cryptogenic cirrhosis, likely due to insufficient surveillance measures. Consequently, treatment options are constrained, resulting in shorter survival periods.[8]

Epidemiology and Demographics

Age

Studies indicate that cryptogenic cirrhosis tends to occur more frequently in older individuals compared to non-cryptogenic cirrhosis, with some research suggesting an age difference of approximately ten years [9]. Additionally, it is more prevalent among individuals who have obesity, diabetes, and other metabolic comorbidities.

Gender

Cryptogenic cirrhosis is more common in females, which can partly be explained by higher prevalence of alcoholic liver disease in men globally.[10]

Race

No ethnic predilection has been observed in cryptogenic cirrhosis.

Developed vs. Developing Countries

Cryptogenic cirrhosis is a more frequent diagnosis in resource-limited and developing economies, probably due to lower availability of more advanced diagnostic modalities.

Risk Factors

Screening

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Cryptogenic cirrhosis is an irreversible chronic liver disease characterized by chronic liver injury, inflammation, fibrosis, and distortion and nodularity of liver architecture. The natural history of CC characterized by an asymptomatic phase, known as "compensated cirrhosis," followed by a progressive phase known as "decompensated cirrhosis". Decompensated cirrhosis is end-stage liver disease (ESLD) and is marked by the development of complications of portal hypertension and/or liver dysfunction, similar to non-cryptogenic cirrhosis.

Complications

Patients with cryptogenic cirrhosis are at risk of developing complications associated with advanced liver disease. These include portal hypertension and associated complications, hepatic encephalopathy, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, hepatorenal syndrome, hepatocellular carcinoma, and death.

Prognosis

The prognosis of cryptogenic cirrhosis, like cirrhosis due to other etiologies, depends on various factors including the stage of cirrhosis at diagnosis, the presence of complications, and the response to treatment. An added factor influencing the prognosis of CC is the absence of an underlying cause, adding complexity and uncertainty to the selection and implementation of suitable therapies and interventions. Early diagnosis and intervention may improve outcomes, but cryptogenic cirrhosis still carries a significant risk of morbidity and mortality.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

There are no standardized diagnostic criteria for CC and it is best defined by exclusion.

History and Symptoms

Cryptogenic cirrhosis presents with symptoms similar to cirrhosis stemming from other known causes. These may include fatigue, jaundice, abdominal swelling, easy bruising, and confusion. Additionally, individuals might experience weight loss, weakness, and a loss of appetite. It's crucial to note that while the symptoms may resemble those of cirrhosis due to identified causes, the underlying origin in cryptogenic cirrhosis remains unknown.

Past Medical History

Diagnosing CC requires a rigorous past medical history evaluations and the presence of any metabolic disorder needs to be ruled to diagnose the condition.

Laboratory Findings

Laboratory tests for cryptogenic cirrhosis typically reveal patterns consistent with cirrhosis of other known etiologies. These may include elevated liver enzymes, such as ALT and AST, as well as abnormal bilirubin levels. Additionally, markers of liver function, such as albumin and prothrombin time, may be impaired.

Imaging Findings

Imaging studies like ultrasound or MRI may show signs of liver damage, such as nodularity or irregularity. CT scans may further corroborate these findings, revealing features like liver atrophy, hypertrophy of the caudate lobe, and evidence of portal hypertension.

The images are sourced from an article published in Radiology Case Reports (Volume 19; Authors: Wajeeh Ur Rehman, Eeman Ahmad, Arsalan Nadeem, Shahzaib Ahmed, Imam Ali Shah; Title: 'Cryptogenic cirrhosis: Decoding diagnostic challenges through radiological insights'; Pages: 2735-2740; Copyright Elsevier, 2024).[11]
Pre-contrast CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis depicts an irregular nodular margin of the liver (green arrowhead), hypertrophy of the caudate lobe (orange arrow), and the presence of ascites (red arrow).[12]
Arterial phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis shows no enhancing focal lesions in the liver. However, it reveals irregular nodular margins (green arrowhead) and hypertrophy of the caudate lobe (orange arrow), along with the presence of ascites (red arrow).[12]
Portal/venous phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis illustrates heterogeneous liver parenchyma without evident washout. Signs suggestive of a cirrhotic liver include hypertrophy of the caudate lobe and collateral vessels around the perigastric (green circle) and perisplenic (blue circle) areas, accompanied by the presence of ascites.[12]
Portal/venous phase CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis, the portal vein (green arrow) and its branches appear patent without any signs of thrombosis or obstruction. Furthermore, there are no enhancing focal lesions detected in the liver.[12]

Treatment

Pharmacotherapy

Acute Pharmacotherapies

Chronic Pharmacotherapies

Surgery and Device Based Therapy

Indications for Surgery

Pre-Operative Assessment

Post-Operative Management

Transplantation

Primary Prevention

Secondary Prevention

Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy

Future or Investigational Therapies

References

  1. Eslam M, Valenti L, Romeo S (2018). "Genetics and epigenetics of NAFLD and NASH: Clinical impact". J Hepatol. 68 (2): 268–279. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2017.09.003. PMID 29122391.
  2. Mercado-Irizarry A, Torres EA (2016). "Cryptogenic cirrhosis: Current knowledge and future directions". Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken). 7 (4): 69–72. doi:10.1002/cld.539. PMC 6490261. PMID 31041033.
  3. Verweij N, Haas ME, Nielsen JB, Sosina OA, Kim M, Akbari P; et al. (2022). "Germline Mutations in CIDEB and Protection against Liver Disease". N Engl J Med. 387 (4): 332–344. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2117872. PMID 35939579 Check |pmid= value (help).
  4. Verweij N, Haas ME, Nielsen JB, Sosina OA, Kim M, Akbari P; et al. (2022). "Germline Mutations in CIDEB and Protection against Liver Disease". N Engl J Med. 387 (4): 332–344. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2117872. PMID 35939579 Check |pmid= value (help).
  5. Giannini EG, Marabotto E, Savarino V, Trevisani F, di Nolfo MA, Del Poggio P; et al. (2009). "Hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cryptogenic cirrhosis". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 7 (5): 580–5. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2009.01.001. PMID 19418607.
  6. Perumpail RB, Liu A, Wong RJ, Ahmed A, Harrison SA (2015). "Pathogenesis of hepatocarcinogenesis in non-cirrhotic nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Potential mechanistic pathways". World J Hepatol. 7 (22): 2384–8. doi:10.4254/wjh.v7.i22.2384. PMC 4598608. PMID 26464753.
  7. Rinaldi L, Nascimbeni F, Giordano M, Masetti C, Guerrera B, Amelia A; et al. (2017). "Clinical features and natural history of cryptogenic cirrhosis compared to hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis". World J Gastroenterol. 23 (8): 1458–1468. doi:10.3748/wjg.v23.i8.1458. PMC 5330831. PMID 28293093.
  8. Giannini EG, Marabotto E, Savarino V, Trevisani F, di Nolfo MA, Del Poggio P; et al. (2009). "Hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cryptogenic cirrhosis". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 7 (5): 580–5. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2009.01.001. PMID 19418607.
  9. Caldwell SH, Oelsner DH, Iezzoni JC, Hespenheide EE, Battle EH, Driscoll CJ (1999). "Cryptogenic cirrhosis: clinical characterization and risk factors for underlying disease". Hepatology. 29 (3): 664–9. doi:10.1002/hep.510290347. PMID 10051466.
  10. Caldwell SH, Oelsner DH, Iezzoni JC, Hespenheide EE, Battle EH, Driscoll CJ (1999). "Cryptogenic cirrhosis: clinical characterization and risk factors for underlying disease". Hepatology. 29 (3): 664–9. doi:10.1002/hep.510290347. PMID 10051466.
  11. Rehman WU, Ahmad E, Nadeem A, Ahmed S, Shah IA (2024). "Cryptogenic cirrhosis: Decoding diagnostic challenges through radiological insights". Radiol Case Rep. 19 (7): 2735–2740. doi:10.1016/j.radcr.2024.03.069. PMC 11047172 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38680743 Check |pmid= value (help).
  12. 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Rehman WU, Ahmad E, Nadeem A, Ahmed S, Shah IA (2024). "Cryptogenic cirrhosis: Decoding diagnostic challenges through radiological insights". Radiol Case Rep. 19 (7): 2735–2740. doi:10.1016/j.radcr.2024.03.069. PMC 11047172 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38680743 Check |pmid= value (help).