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{{WS}} | {{WS}} | ||
[[Category: (name of the system)]] | [[Category: (name of the system)]] | ||
__NOTOC__ | |||
{{Astrocytoma}} | |||
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{Fs}} | |||
==Overview== | |||
On the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms, astrocytoma must be differentiated from [[oligodendroglioma]], [[meningioma]], [[hemangioblastoma]], [[pituitary adenoma]], [[schwannoma]], [[Primary central nervous system lymphoma|primary CNS lymphoma]], [[medulloblastoma]], [[ependymoma]], [[craniopharyngioma]], [[pinealoma]], [[Arteriovenous malformation|AV malformation]], [[brain aneurysm]], [[bacterial]] [[brain]] [[abscess]], [[tuberculosis]], [[toxoplasmosis]], [[hydatid cyst]], [[CNS]] [[cryptococcosis]], [[CNS]] [[aspergillosis]], and [[brain metastasis]]. | |||
== Differentiating astrocytoma from other Diseases == | |||
=== Differentiating astrocytoma from other diseases on the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms === | |||
On the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms, astrocytoma must be differentiated from [[oligodendroglioma]], [[meningioma]], [[hemangioblastoma]], [[pituitary adenoma]], [[schwannoma]], [[Primary central nervous system lymphoma|primary CNS lymphoma]], [[medulloblastoma]], [[ependymoma]], [[craniopharyngioma]], [[pinealoma]], [[Arteriovenous malformation|AV malformation]], [[brain aneurysm]], [[bacterial]] [[brain]] [[abscess]], [[tuberculosis]], [[toxoplasmosis]], [[hydatid cyst]], [[CNS]] [[cryptococcosis]], [[CNS]] [[aspergillosis]], and [[brain metastasis]]. | |||
{| | |||
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" | |||
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" |Diseases | |||
| colspan="5" rowspan="1" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |'''Clinical manifestations''' | |||
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |Para-clinical findings | |||
| colspan="1" rowspan="4" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |'''Gold<br>standard''' | |||
! rowspan="4" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Additional findings | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |'''Symptoms''' | |||
! rowspan="2" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Physical examination | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Lab Findings | |||
! rowspan="2" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |MRI | |||
! rowspan="2" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Immunohistopathology | |||
|- | |||
! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Head-<br>ache | |||
! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Seizure | |||
! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Visual disturbance | |||
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Constitutional | |||
! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Focal neurological deficit | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="7" style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Adult primary brain tumors | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Glioblastoma multiforme]]<br><ref name="pmid17964028">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA |title=Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma |journal=Neurol Clin |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=1111–39, x |date=November 2007 |pmid=17964028 |doi=10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22819718">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pedersen CL, Romner B |title=Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review |journal=Clin Neurol Neurosurg |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |date=January 2013 |pmid=22819718 |doi=10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book | last = Mattle | first = Heinrich | title = Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide | publisher = Thieme | location = Stuttgart New York | year = 2017 | isbn = 9783131364524 }}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Supratentorial]] | |||
* Irregular ring-nodular enhancing lesions | |||
* Central [[necrosis]] | |||
* Surrounding [[vasogenic edema]] | |||
* Cross [[corpus callosum]] ([[butterfly glioma]]) | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Astrocyte]] origin | |||
* [[Pleomorphism|Pleomorphic]] cell | |||
* Pseudopalisading appearance | |||
* [[GFAP]] + | |||
* [[Necrosis]] + | |||
* [[Hemorrhage]] + | |||
* [[Vascular]] prolifration + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Highest [[incidence]] in fifth and sixth decades of life | |||
* Most of the time, focal [[neurological]] deficit is the presenting [[Sign (medical)|sign]]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[oligodendroglioma]]<br><ref name="pmid26849038">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smits M |title=Imaging of oligodendroglioma |journal=Br J Radiol |volume=89 |issue=1060 |pages=20150857 |date=2016 |pmid=26849038 |pmc=4846213 |doi=10.1259/bjr.20150857 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25943885">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wesseling P, van den Bent M, Perry A |title=Oligodendroglioma: pathology, molecular mechanisms and markers |journal=Acta Neuropathol. |volume=129 |issue=6 |pages=809–27 |date=June 2015 |pmid=25943885 |pmc=4436696 |doi=10.1007/s00401-015-1424-1 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26478444">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kerkhof M, Benit C, Duran-Pena A, Vecht CJ |title=Seizures in oligodendroglial tumors |journal=CNS Oncol |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=347–56 |date=2015 |pmid=26478444 |pmc=6082346 |doi=10.2217/cns.15.29 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Almost always in [[Cerebral hemisphere|cerebral hemisphers]] ([[Frontal lobe|frontal lobes]]) | |||
* Hypointense on T1 | |||
* Hyperintense on T2 | |||
* [[Calcification]] | |||
* Chicken wire capillary pattern | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Oligodendrocyte]] origin | |||
* [[Calcification]] + | |||
* Fried egg cell appearance | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Highest [[incidence]] is between 40 and 50 years of age. | |||
* Most of the time, [[epileptic seizure]] is the presenting [[Sign (medicine)|sign]]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Meningioma]]<br><ref name="pmid1642904">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zee CS, Chin T, Segall HD, Destian S, Ahmadi J |title=Magnetic resonance imaging of meningiomas |journal=Semin. Ultrasound CT MR |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=154–69 |date=June 1992 |pmid=1642904 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25744347">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shibuya M |title=Pathology and molecular genetics of meningioma: recent advances |journal=Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo) |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=14–27 |date=2015 |pmid=25744347 |doi=10.2176/nmc.ra.2014-0233 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17509660">{{cite journal |vauthors=Begnami MD, Palau M, Rushing EJ, Santi M, Quezado M |title=Evaluation of NF2 gene deletion in sporadic schwannomas, meningiomas, and ependymomas by chromogenic in situ hybridization |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=1345–50 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17509660 |pmc=2094208 |doi=10.1016/j.humpath.2007.01.027 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Well circumscribed | |||
* Extra-axial [[mass]] | |||
* [[Meninges|Dural]] attachment | |||
* [[CSF]] [[vascular]] cleft sign | |||
* Sunburst appearance of the [[Vessel|vessels]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Arachnoid]] origin | |||
* [[Psammoma body|Psammoma bodies]] | |||
* Whorled spindle cell pattern | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Highest [[incidence]] is between 40 and 50 years of age. | |||
* Most of the time, focal [[neurological]] deficit and [[epileptic seizure]] are the presenting [[signs]]. | |||
* May be associated with [[Neurofibromatosis type II|NF-2]] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hemangioblastoma]]<br><ref name="pmid24579662">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lonser RR, Butman JA, Huntoon K, Asthagiri AR, Wu T, Bakhtian KD, Chew EY, Zhuang Z, Linehan WM, Oldfield EH |title=Prospective natural history study of central nervous system hemangioblastomas in von Hippel-Lindau disease |journal=J. Neurosurg. |volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=1055–62 |date=May 2014 |pmid=24579662 |pmc=4762041 |doi=10.3171/2014.1.JNS131431 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17877533">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hussein MR |title=Central nervous system capillary haemangioblastoma: the pathologist's viewpoint |journal=Int J Exp Pathol |volume=88 |issue=5 |pages=311–24 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17877533 |pmc=2517334 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2613.2007.00535.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2704812">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee SR, Sanches J, Mark AS, Dillon WP, Norman D, Newton TH |title=Posterior fossa hemangioblastomas: MR imaging |journal=Radiology |volume=171 |issue=2 |pages=463–8 |date=May 1989 |pmid=2704812 |doi=10.1148/radiology.171.2.2704812 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid945331">{{cite journal |vauthors=Perks WH, Cross JN, Sivapragasam S, Johnson P |title=Supratentorial haemangioblastoma with polycythaemia |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=218–20 |date=March 1976 |pmid=945331 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Infratentorial]] | |||
* [[Cyst|Cystic]] lesion with a solid enhancing mural [[nodule]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Blood vessel]] origin | |||
* [[Capillary|Capillaries]] with thin walls | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Might secret [[erythropoietin]] and cause [[polycythemia]] | |||
* May be associated with [[Von Hippel-Lindau Disease|von hippel-lindau syndrome]] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pituitary adenoma]]<br><ref name="pmid3786729">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kucharczyk W, Davis DO, Kelly WM, Sze G, Norman D, Newton TH |title=Pituitary adenomas: high-resolution MR imaging at 1.5 T |journal=Radiology |volume=161 |issue=3 |pages=761–5 |date=December 1986 |pmid=3786729 |doi=10.1148/radiology.161.3.3786729 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22584705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Syro LV, Scheithauer BW, Kovacs K, Toledo RA, Londoño FJ, Ortiz LD, Rotondo F, Horvath E, Uribe H |title=Pituitary tumors in patients with MEN1 syndrome |journal=Clinics (Sao Paulo) |volume=67 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=43–8 |date=2012 |pmid=22584705 |pmc=3328811 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + [[Bitemporal hemianopia]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Endocrine]] abnormalities as a result of [[Pituitary adenoma|functional adenomas]] or pressure effect of non-functional [[Adenoma|adenomas]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Isointense to normal [[pituitary gland]] in T1 | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Endocrine]] cell [[hyperplasia]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* It is associated with [[MEN1]] disease. | |||
* Initialy presents with upper bitemporal quadrantanopsia followed by [[Bitemporal hemianopia|bitemporal hemianopsia]] (pressure on [[Optic chiasm|optic chiasma]] from below) | |||
* | |||
* | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Schwannoma]]<br><ref name="DonnellyDaly2007">{{cite journal|last1=Donnelly|first1=Martin J.|last2=Daly|first2=Carmel A.|last3=Briggs|first3=Robert J. S.|title=MR imaging features of an intracochlear acoustic schwannoma|journal=The Journal of Laryngology & Otology|volume=108|issue=12|year=2007|issn=0022-2151|doi=10.1017/S0022215100129056}}</ref><ref name="pmid9639114">{{cite journal |vauthors=Feany MB, Anthony DC, Fletcher CD |title=Nerve sheath tumours with hybrid features of neurofibroma and schwannoma: a conceptual challenge |journal=Histopathology |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=405–10 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9639114 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28710469">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen H, Xue L, Wang H, Wang Z, Wu H |title=Differential NF2 Gene Status in Sporadic Vestibular Schwannomas and its Prognostic Impact on Tumour Growth Patterns |journal=Sci Rep |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=5470 |date=July 2017 |pmid=28710469 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-05769-0 |url=}}</ref><ref name="HardellHansson Mild2003">{{cite journal|last1=Hardell|first1=Lennart|last2=Hansson Mild|first2=Kjell|last3=Sandström|first3=Monica|last4=Carlberg|first4=Michael|last5=Hallquist|first5=Arne|last6=Påhlson|first6=Anneli|title=Vestibular Schwannoma, Tinnitus and Cellular Telephones|journal=Neuroepidemiology|volume=22|issue=2|year=2003|pages=124–129|issn=0251-5350|doi=10.1159/000068745}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Split-fat sign | |||
* Fascicular sign | |||
* Often have areas of [[hemosiderin]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Schwann cell]] origin | |||
* S100+ | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* It causes [[hearing loss]] and [[tinnitus]] | |||
* May be associated with [[Neurofibromatosis type II|NF-2]] (bilateral [[Schwannoma|schwannomas]]) | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Primary central nervous system lymphoma|Primary CNS lymphoma]]<br><ref name="pmid7480733">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ |title=Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy |journal=Radiology |volume=197 |issue=3 |pages=649–54 |date=December 1995 |pmid=7480733 |doi=10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Paulus19992">{{cite journal|last1=Paulus|first1=Werner|journal=Journal of Neuro-Oncology|title=Classification, Pathogenesis and Molecular Pathology of Primary CNS Lymphomas|volume=43|issue=3|year=1999|pages=203–208|issn=0167594X|doi=10.1023/A:1006242116122}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Usually deep in the [[white matter]] | |||
* Single [[mass]] with ring enhancement | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[B cell]] origin | |||
* Similar to [[Non-Hodgkin lymphoma|non hodgkin lymphoma]] ([[Diffuse large B cell lymphoma|diffuse large B cell]]) | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Usually in young [[immunocompromised]] patients ([[HIV]]) or old [[immunocompetent]] person. | |||
* | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="5" style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Childhood primary brain tumors | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pilocytic astrocytoma]]<br><ref name="pmid179640282">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA |title=Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma |journal=Neurol Clin |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=1111–39, x |date=November 2007 |pmid=17964028 |doi=10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid228197182">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pedersen CL, Romner B |title=Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review |journal=Clin Neurol Neurosurg |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |date=January 2013 |pmid=22819718 |doi=10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite book | last = Mattle | first = Heinrich | title = Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide | publisher = Thieme | location = Stuttgart New York | year = 2017 | isbn = 9783131364524 }}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Infratentorial]] | |||
* Solid and [[Cyst|cystic]] component | |||
* Mostly in [[posterior fossa]] | |||
* Usually in [[Cerebellar hemisphere|cerebellar hemisphers]] and [[Cerebellar vermis|vermis]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Glial cell]] origin | |||
*Solid and [[Cyst|cystic]] component | |||
* [[GFAP]] + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Most of the time, [[Cerebellum|cerebellar]] dysfunction is the presenting [[signs]]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Medulloblastoma]]<br><ref name="DorwartWara1981">{{cite journal|last1=Dorwart|first1=R H|last2=Wara|first2=W M|last3=Norman|first3=D|last4=Levin|first4=V A|title=Complete myelographic evaluation of spinal metastases from medulloblastoma.|journal=Radiology|volume=139|issue=2|year=1981|pages=403–408|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiology.139.2.7220886}}</ref><ref name="Fruehwald-PallamarPuchner2011">{{cite journal|last1=Fruehwald-Pallamar|first1=Julia|last2=Puchner|first2=Stefan B.|last3=Rossi|first3=Andrea|last4=Garre|first4=Maria L.|last5=Cama|first5=Armando|last6=Koelblinger|first6=Claus|last7=Osborn|first7=Anne G.|last8=Thurnher|first8=Majda M.|title=Magnetic resonance imaging spectrum of medulloblastoma|journal=Neuroradiology|volume=53|issue=6|year=2011|pages=387–396|issn=0028-3940|doi=10.1007/s00234-010-0829-8}}</ref><ref name="BurgerGrahmann1987">{{cite journal|last1=Burger|first1=P. C.|last2=Grahmann|first2=F. C.|last3=Bliestle|first3=A.|last4=Kleihues|first4=P.|title=Differentiation in the medulloblastoma|journal=Acta Neuropathologica|volume=73|issue=2|year=1987|pages=115–123|issn=0001-6322|doi=10.1007/BF00693776}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Infratentorial]] | |||
* Mostly in [[cerebellum]] | |||
* Non communicating [[hydrocephalus]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Neuroectoderm]] origin | |||
* Homer wright rosettes | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Drop metastasis]] ([[metastasis]] through [[CSF]]) | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Ependymoma]]<br><ref name="YuhBarkovich2009">{{cite journal|last1=Yuh|first1=E. L.|last2=Barkovich|first2=A. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=N.|title=Imaging of ependymomas: MRI and CT|journal=Child's Nervous System|volume=25|issue=10|year=2009|pages=1203–1213|issn=0256-7040|doi=10.1007/s00381-009-0878-7}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Infratentorial]] | |||
* Usually found in [[Fourth ventricle|4th ventricle]] | |||
* Mixed [[Cyst|cystic]]/solid [[lesion]] | |||
* Hydrocephalus | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Ependymal cell]] origin | |||
* Peri[[vascular]] pseudorosette | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Causes an unusually persistent, continuous [[headache]] in children. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Craniopharyngioma]]<br><ref name="pmid12407316">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brunel H, Raybaud C, Peretti-Viton P, Lena G, Girard N, Paz-Paredes A, Levrier O, Farnarier P, Manera L, Choux M |title=[Craniopharyngioma in children: MRI study of 43 cases] |language=French |journal=Neurochirurgie |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=309–18 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12407316 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="PrabhuBrown2005">{{cite journal|last1=Prabhu|first1=Vikram C.|last2=Brown|first2=Henry G.|title=The pathogenesis of craniopharyngiomas|journal=Child's Nervous System|volume=21|issue=8-9|year=2005|pages=622–627|issn=0256-7040|doi=10.1007/s00381-005-1190-9}}</ref><ref name="pmid766825">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kennedy HB, Smith RJ |title=Eye signs in craniopharyngioma |journal=Br J Ophthalmol |volume=59 |issue=12 |pages=689–95 |date=December 1975 |pmid=766825 |pmc=1017436 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + [[Bitemporal hemianopia]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Hypopituitarism]] as a result of pressure effect on [[pituitary gland]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Calcification]] | |||
* Lobulated contour | |||
* Motor-oil like fluid within [[tumor]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Ectoderm|Ectodermal]] origin ([[Rathke's pouch|Rathkes pouch]]) | |||
* [[Calcification]] + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Initialy presents with lower bitemporal quadrantanopsia followed by [[Bitemporal hemianopia|bitemporal hemianopsia]] (pressure on [[Optic chiasm|optic chiasma]] from above) | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pinealoma]]<br><ref name="pmid6625640">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahmed SR, Shalet SM, Price DA, Pearson D |title=Human chorionic gonadotrophin secreting pineal germinoma and precocious puberty |journal=Arch. Dis. Child. |volume=58 |issue=9 |pages=743–5 |date=September 1983 |pmid=6625640 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="Sano1976">{{cite journal|last1=Sano|first1=Keiji|title=Pinealoma in Children|journal=Pediatric Neurosurgery|volume=2|issue=1|year=1976|pages=67–72|issn=1016-2291|doi=10.1159/000119602}}</ref><ref name="Baggenstoss1939">{{cite journal|last1=Baggenstoss|first1=Archie H.|title=PINEALOMAS|journal=Archives of Neurology And Psychiatry|volume=41|issue=6|year=1939|pages=1187|issn=0096-6754|doi=10.1001/archneurpsyc.1939.02270180115011}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + vertical gaze palsy | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* B-hCG rise leads to [[precocious puberty]] in [[Male|males]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Hydrocephalus]] (compression of [[cerebral aqueduct]]) | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Similar to [[testicular seminoma]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Biopsy]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* May cause prinaud syndrome ([[Vertical gaze center|vertical gaze]] palsy, pupillary light-near dissociation, lid retraction and convergence-retraction [[nystagmus]] | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="2" style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Vascular | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Arteriovenous malformation|AV malformation]]<br><ref name="KucharczykLemme-Pleghos1985">{{cite journal|last1=Kucharczyk|first1=W|last2=Lemme-Pleghos|first2=L|last3=Uske|first3=A|last4=Brant-Zawadzki|first4=M|last5=Dooms|first5=G|last6=Norman|first6=D|title=Intracranial vascular malformations: MR and CT imaging.|journal=Radiology|volume=156|issue=2|year=1985|pages=383–389|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiology.156.2.4011900}}</ref><ref name="FleetwoodSteinberg2002">{{cite journal|last1=Fleetwood|first1=Ian G|last2=Steinberg|first2=Gary K|title=Arteriovenous malformations|journal=The Lancet|volume=359|issue=9309|year=2002|pages=863–873|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07946-1}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Supratentorial]]: ~85% | |||
* Flow voids on T2 weighted images | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We do not perform [[biopsy]] for [[AVM]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Angiography]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We may see bag of worms appearance in [[CT angiography]] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Brain aneurysm]]<br><ref name="ChapmanRubinstein1992">{{cite journal|last1=Chapman|first1=Arlene B.|last2=Rubinstein|first2=David|last3=Hughes|first3=Richard|last4=Stears|first4=John C.|last5=Earnest|first5=Michael P.|last6=Johnson|first6=Ann M.|last7=Gabow|first7=Patricia A.|last8=Kaehny|first8=William D.|title=Intracranial Aneurysms in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=327|issue=13|year=1992|pages=916–920|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJM199209243271303}}</ref><ref name="pmid25632331">{{cite journal |vauthors=Castori M, Voermans NC |title=Neurological manifestations of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome(s): A review |journal=Iran J Neurol |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=190–208 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25632331 |pmc=4300794 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="SchievinkRaissi2010">{{cite journal|last1=Schievink|first1=W. I.|last2=Raissi|first2=S. S.|last3=Maya|first3=M. M.|last4=Velebir|first4=A.|title=Screening for intracranial aneurysms in patients with bicuspid aortic valve|journal=Neurology|volume=74|issue=18|year=2010|pages=1430–1433|issn=0028-3878|doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181dc1acf}}</ref><ref name="pmid28486967">{{cite journal |vauthors=Germain DP |title=Pseudoxanthoma elasticum |journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=85 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28486967 |pmc=5424392 |doi=10.1186/s13023-017-0639-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27162847">{{cite journal |vauthors=Farahmand M, Farahangiz S, Yadollahi M |title=Diagnostic Accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Angiography for Detection of Intracranial Aneurysms in Patients with Acute Subarachnoid Hemorrhage; A Comparison to Digital Subtraction Angiography |journal=Bull Emerg Trauma |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=147–51 |date=October 2013 |pmid=27162847 |pmc=4789449 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* In [[magnetic resonance angiography]], we may see [[aneurysm]] mostly in anterior circulation (~85%) | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We do not perform [[biopsy]] for [[brain aneurysm]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Magnetic resonance angiography]] and [[CT angiography]] ([[Angiography]] is reserved for patients who have negative [[Magnetic resonance angiography|MAR]] and [[CT angiography|CTA]]) | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* It is associated with [[autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease]], [[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome]], [[pseudoxanthoma elasticum]] and [[Bicuspid aortic valve]] | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="6" style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Infectious | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Bacterial [[brain abscess]]<br><ref name="HaimesZimmerman1989">{{cite journal|last1=Haimes|first1=AB|last2=Zimmerman|first2=RD|last3=Morgello|first3=S|last4=Weingarten|first4=K|last5=Becker|first5=RD|last6=Jennis|first6=R|last7=Deck|first7=MD|title=MR imaging of brain abscesses|journal=American Journal of Roentgenology|volume=152|issue=5|year=1989|pages=1073–1085|issn=0361-803X|doi=10.2214/ajr.152.5.1073}}</ref><ref name="BrouwerTunkel2014">{{cite journal|last1=Brouwer|first1=Matthijs C.|last2=Tunkel|first2=Allan R.|last3=McKhann|first3=Guy M.|last4=van de Beek|first4=Diederik|title=Brain Abscess|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=5|year=2014|pages=447–456|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1301635}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Leukocytosis]] | |||
* Elevated [[ESR]] | |||
* [[Blood culture]] may be positive for underlying [[organism]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Central hypodense signal and surrounding ring-enhancement in T1 | |||
* Central hyperintense area surrounded by a well-defined hypointense capsule with surrounding [[edema]] in T2 | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We do not perform [[biopsy]] for [[brain abscess]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Clinical presentation/ imaging | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* The most common causes of [[brain abscess]] are [[Streptococcus]] and [[Staphylococcus]]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Tuberculosis]]<br><ref name="MorgadoRuivo2005">{{cite journal|last1=Morgado|first1=Carlos|last2=Ruivo|first2=Nuno|title=Imaging meningo-encephalic tuberculosis|journal=European Journal of Radiology|volume=55|issue=2|year=2005|pages=188–192|issn=0720048X|doi=10.1016/j.ejrad.2005.04.017}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name="pmid19275620">{{cite journal |vauthors=Be NA, Kim KS, Bishai WR, Jain SK |title=Pathogenesis of central nervous system tuberculosis |journal=Curr. Mol. Med. |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=94–9 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19275620 |pmc=4486069 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Positive [[acid-fast bacilli]] ([[AFB]]) smear in [[CSF]] specimen | |||
* Positive [[CSF]] [[nucleic acid]] amplification testing | |||
* [[Hyponatremia]] (inappropriate secretion of [[antidiuretic hormone]]) | |||
* Mild [[anemia]] | |||
* [[Leukocytosis]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Hydrocephalus]] combined with marked basilar [[Meninges|meningeal]] enhancement | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We do not perform [[biopsy]] for [[brain]] [[tuberculosis]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[CSF]] analysis/ Imaging | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* It is associated with [[HIV]] [[infection]] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Toxoplasmosis]]<br><ref name="pmid74807332">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ |title=Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy |journal=Radiology |volume=197 |issue=3 |pages=649–54 |date=December 1995 |pmid=7480733 |doi=10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27348541">{{cite journal |vauthors=Helton KJ, Maron G, Mamcarz E, Leventaki V, Patay Z, Sadighi Z |title=Unusual magnetic resonance imaging presentation of post-BMT cerebral toxoplasmosis masquerading as meningoencephalitis and ventriculitis |journal=Bone Marrow Transplant. |volume=51 |issue=11 |pages=1533–1536 |date=November 2016 |pmid=27348541 |doi=10.1038/bmt.2016.168 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Normal [[CSF]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Multifocal [[Mass|masses]] with ring enhancement | |||
* Mostly in [[basal ganglia]], [[thalami]], and corticomedullary junction. | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We do not perform [[biopsy]] for brain [[toxoplasmosis]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Clinical presentation/ imaging | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* It is associated with [[HIV]] [[infection]] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hydatid cyst]]<br><ref name="pmid27620198">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taslakian B, Darwish H |title=Intracranial hydatid cyst: imaging findings of a rare disease |journal=BMJ Case Rep |volume=2016 |issue= |pages= |date=September 2016 |pmid=27620198 |pmc=5030532 |doi=10.1136/bcr-2016-216570 |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: left;" | | |||
* Positive [[serology]] ([[Antibody]] detection for [[E. granulosus]]'')'' | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Honeycomb appearance | |||
* [[Necrotic]] area | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We do not perform [[biopsy]] for [[Hydatid cyst|hydatid cysts]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Imaging | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Brain]], [[eye]], and [[Spleen|splenic]] [[Cyst|cysts]] may not produce detectable amount of [[antibodies]] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[CNS]] [[cryptococcosis]]<br><ref name="pmid25006721">{{cite journal |vauthors=McCarthy M, Rosengart A, Schuetz AN, Kontoyiannis DP, Walsh TJ |title=Mold infections of the central nervous system |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=371 |issue=2 |pages=150–60 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25006721 |pmc=4840461 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1216008 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Positive [[CSF]] [[antigen]] testing ([[coccidioidomycosis]]) | |||
* [[CSF]] [[Lymphocyte|lymphocytic]] [[pleocytosis]] | |||
* Elevated [[CSF]] [[Protein|proteins]] and [[lactate]] | |||
* Low [[CSF]] [[glucose]] | |||
* | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Dilated peri[[vascular]] spaces | |||
* [[Basal ganglia]] [[Pseudocyst|pseudocysts]] | |||
* Soap bubble brain lesions ([[cryptococcus neoformans]]) | |||
* | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We may see numerous acutely branching septate [[Hypha|hyphae]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Laboratory|Lab]] data/ Imaging | |||
* since [[brain]] [[Biopsy|biopsies]] are highly invasive and may may cause [[neurological]] deficits, we [[diagnose]] [[CNS]] [[fungal]] [[Infection|infections]] based on [[laboratory]] and imaging findings | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* It is the most common [[brain]] [[fungal infection]] | |||
* It is associated with [[HIV]], [[Immunosuppressive therapy|immunosuppressive therapies]], and [[Organ transplant|organ transplants]] | |||
* In may happen in [[immunocompetent]] patients undergoing invasive procedures ( [[neurosurgery]]) or exposed to [[Contamination|contaminated]] devices or [[drugs]] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[CNS]] [[aspergillosis]]<br><ref name="pmid250067212">{{cite journal |vauthors=McCarthy M, Rosengart A, Schuetz AN, Kontoyiannis DP, Walsh TJ |title=Mold infections of the central nervous system |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=371 |issue=2 |pages=150–60 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25006721 |pmc=4840461 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1216008 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Positive [[galactomannan]] [[antigen]] testing ([[aspergillosis]]) | |||
* [[CSF]] [[Lymphocyte|lymphocytic]] [[pleocytosis]] | |||
* Elevated [[CSF]] [[Protein|proteins]] and [[lactate]] | |||
* Low [[CSF]] [[glucose]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Multiple [[Abscess|abscesses]] | |||
* Ring enhancement | |||
* Peripheral low signal intensity on T2 | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* We may see numerous acutely branching septate [[Hypha|hyphae]] | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* [[Laboratory|Lab]] data/ Imaging | |||
* since [[brain]] [[Biopsy|biopsies]] are highly invasive and may may cause [[neurological]] deficits, we [[diagnose]] [[CNS]] [[fungal]] [[Infection|infections]] based on [[laboratory]] and imaging findings | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* It is associated with [[HIV]], [[Immunosuppressive therapy|immunosuppressive therapies]], and [[Organ transplant|organ transplants]] | |||
* In may happen in [[immunocompetent]] patients undergoing invasive procedures ( [[neurosurgery]]) or exposed to [[Contamination|contaminated]] devices or [[drugs]] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Other | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Brain metastasis]]<br><ref name="pmid29307364">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pope WB |title=Brain metastases: neuroimaging |journal=Handb Clin Neurol |volume=149 |issue= |pages=89–112 |date=2018 |pmid=29307364 |pmc=6118134 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-811161-1.00007-4 |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/− | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | + | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | − | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Multiple [[Lesion|lesions]] | |||
* [[Vasogenic edema]] | |||
* | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Based on the primary [[cancer]] type we may have different immunohistopathology findings. | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* History/ imaging | |||
* If there is any uncertainty about [[etiology]], [[biopsy]] should be performed | |||
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | | |||
* Most common primary [[Tumor|tumors]] that [[metastasis]] to [[brain]]: | |||
** [[Lung cancer]] | |||
** [[Renal cell carcinoma]] | |||
** [[Breast cancer]] | |||
** [[Melanoma]] | |||
** [[Gastrointestinal tract]] | |||
|} | |||
'''ABBREVIATIONS''' | |||
CNS=Central nervous system, AV=Arteriovenous, CSF=Cerebrospinal fluid, NF-2=Neurofibromatosis type 2, MEN-1=Multiple endocrine neoplasia, GFAP=Glial fibrillary acidic protein, HIV=Human immunodeficiency virus, BhCG=Human chorionic gonadotropin, ESR=Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, AFB=Acid fast bacilli | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist|2}} | |||
{{WH}} | |||
{{WS}} | |||
[[Category:Disease]] | |||
[[Category:Neurology]] | |||
[[Category:Neurosurgery]] | |||
[[Category:Pathology]] | |||
[[Category:Up-To-Date]] | |||
[[Category:Oncology]] | |||
[[Category:Medicine]] | |||
Latest revision as of 18:31, 30 January 2019
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: M. Khurram Afzal, MD [2], Sogand Goudarzi, MD [3]
Differentiating [disease name] from other diseases on the basis of [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3]
On the basis [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3], [disease name] must be differentiated from [disease 1], [disease 2], [disease 3], [disease 4], [disease 5], and [disease 6].
| Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Para-clinical findings | Gold standard | Additional findings | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Symptoms | Physical examination | |||||||||||
| Lab Findings | Imaging | |||||||||||
| Symptoms of DVT | Symptoms of Pulmonary Embolism | Symptoms of Myocardial Infarction | Tenderness in extremities | Edema in extremities | Warmth in extremities | PT | aPTT | Doppler ultrasound | Chest CT scan | |||
| Antithrombin III deficiency[1][2][3] | + | + | - | + | + | + | Normal |
|
|
|
|
|
| Factor V Leiden mutation[4][5][6][7][8] | + | + | + | + | + | + | N/A | ↑ |
|
| ||
| Protein C deficiency[9][10][11] | + | + | - | + | + | + | Normal | Normal / ↑ |
|
|
| |
| Protein S deficiency[11][12][13] | + | + | - | + | + | + | Normal | Normal / ↑ |
|
| ||
| Prothrombin gene mutation[14][15][16] | + | + | - | + | + | + | ↑ | N/A |
|
| ||
| Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)[17][18][19] | + | + | +/- | + | + | + | ↑ | ↑ |
|
|
| |
| Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome[20][21][22][23][24] | + | + | +/- | + | + | + | N/A | ↑ |
| |||
References
- ↑ Patnaik MM, Moll S (November 2008). "Inherited antithrombin deficiency: a review". Haemophilia. 14 (6): 1229–39. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2516.2008.01830.x. PMID 19141163.
- ↑ Al Hadidi, Samer; Wu, Kristi; Aburahma, Ahmed; Alamarat, Zain (2017). "Family with clots: antithrombin deficiency". BMJ Case Reports: bcr-2017–221556. doi:10.1136/bcr-2017-221556. ISSN 1757-790X.
- ↑ Konecny F (January 2009). "Inherited trombophilic states and pulmonary embolism". J Res Med Sci. 14 (1): 43–56. PMC 3129068. PMID 21772860.
- ↑ Mannucci PM, Asselta R, Duga S, Guella I, Spreafico M, Lotta L, Merlini PA, Peyvandi F, Kathiresan S, Ardissino D (October 2010). "The association of factor V Leiden with myocardial infarction is replicated in 1880 patients with premature disease". J. Thromb. Haemost. 8 (10): 2116–21. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2010.03982.x. PMID 20626623.
- ↑ Campello E, Spiezia L, Simioni P (December 2016). "Diagnosis and management of factor V Leiden". Expert Rev Hematol. 9 (12): 1139–1149. doi:10.1080/17474086.2016.1249364. PMID 27797270.
- ↑ Van Rooden CJ, Rosendaal FR, Meinders AE, Van Oostayen JA, Van Der Meer FJ, Huisman MV (February 2004). "The contribution of factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A mutation to the risk of central venous catheter-related thrombosis". Haematologica. 89 (2): 201–6. PMID 15003896.
- ↑ Dentali F, Pomero F, Borretta V, Gianni M, Squizzato A, Fenoglio L; et al. (2013). "Location of venous thrombosis in patients with FVL or prothrombin G20210A mutations: systematic review and meta-analysis". Thromb Haemost. 110 (1): 191–4. doi:10.1160/TH13-02-0163. PMID 23615845.
- ↑ Press RD, Bauer KA, Kujovich JL, Heit JA (November 2002). "Clinical utility of factor V leiden (R506Q) testing for the diagnosis and management of thromboembolic disorders". Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 126 (11): 1304–18. doi:10.1043/0003-9985(2002)126<1304:CUOFVL>2.0.CO;2. PMID 12421138.
- ↑ Bernard Khor & Elizabeth M. Van Cott (2010). "Laboratory tests for protein C deficiency". American journal of hematology. 85 (6): 440–442. doi:10.1002/ajh.21679. PMID 20309856. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Pescatore SL (March 2001). "Clinical management of protein C deficiency". Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2 (3): 431–9. doi:10.1517/14656566.2.3.431. PMID 11336597.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Gustavo A. Rodriguez-Leal, Segundo Moran, Roberto Corona-Cedillo & Rocio Brom-Valladares (2014). "Portal vein thrombosis with protein C-S deficiency in a non-cirrhotic patient". World journal of hepatology. 6 (7): 532–537. doi:10.4254/wjh.v6.i7.532. PMID 25068006. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Kristi J. Smock, Elizabeth A. Plumhoff, Piet Meijer, Peihong Hsu, Nicole D. Zantek, Nahla M. Heikal & Elizabeth M. Van Cott (2016). "Protein S testing in patients with protein S deficiency, factor V Leiden, and rivaroxaban by North American Specialized Coagulation Laboratories". Thrombosis and haemostasis. 116 (1): 50–57. doi:10.1160/TH15-12-0918. PMID 27075008. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Ji M, Yoon SN, Lee W, Jang S, Park SH, Kim DY, Chun S, Min WK (October 2011). "Protein S deficiency with a PROS1 gene mutation in a patient presenting with mesenteric venous thrombosis following total colectomy". Blood Coagul. Fibrinolysis. 22 (7): 619–21. doi:10.1097/MBC.0b013e32834a0421. PMID 21799399.
- ↑ Cooper PC, Rezende SM (2007). "An overview of methods for detection of factor V Leiden and the prothrombin G20210A mutations". Int J Lab Hematol. 29 (3): 153–62. doi:10.1111/j.1751-553X.2007.00892.x. PMID 17474891.
- ↑ McGlennen RC, Key NS (2002). "Clinical and laboratory management of the prothrombin G20210A mutation". Arch Pathol Lab Med. 126 (11): 1319–25. doi:10.1043/0003-9985(2002)126<1319:CALMOT>2.0.CO;2. PMID 12421139.
- ↑ Dentali F, Pomero F, Borretta V, Gianni M, Squizzato A, Fenoglio L; et al. (2013). "Location of venous thrombosis in patients with FVL or prothrombin G20210A mutations: systematic review and meta-analysis". Thromb Haemost. 110 (1): 191–4. doi:10.1160/TH13-02-0163. PMID 23615845.
- ↑ Venugopal A (September 2014). "Disseminated intravascular coagulation". Indian J Anaesth. 58 (5): 603–8. doi:10.4103/0019-5049.144666. PMC 4260307. PMID 25535423.
- ↑ Makruasi N (November 2015). "Treatment of Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation". J Med Assoc Thai. 98 Suppl 10: S45–51. PMID 27276832.
- ↑ Cui S, Fu Z, Feng Y, Xie X, Ma X, Liu T; et al. (2018). "The disseminated intravascular coagulation score is a novel predictor for portal vein thrombosis in cirrhotic patients with hepatitis B." Thromb Res. 161: 7–11. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2017.11.010. PMID 29178991.
- ↑ Lim W (2013). "Antiphospholipid syndrome". Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2013: 675–80. doi:10.1182/asheducation-2013.1.675. PMID 24319251.
- ↑ Pengo V, Tripodi A, Reber G, Rand JH, Ortel TL, Galli M, De Groot PG (October 2009). "Update of the guidelines for lupus anticoagulant detection. Subcommittee on Lupus Anticoagulant/Antiphospholipid Antibody of the Scientific and Standardisation Committee of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis". J. Thromb. Haemost. 7 (10): 1737–40. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2009.03555.x. PMID 19624461.
- ↑ Lim W (2013). "Antiphospholipid syndrome". Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2013: 675–80. doi:10.1182/asheducation-2013.1.675. PMID 24319251.
- ↑ Garcia D, Erkan D (2018). "Diagnosis and Management of the Antiphospholipid Syndrome". N Engl J Med. 378 (21): 2010–2021. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1705454. PMID 29791828.
- ↑ Kornacki J, Wirstlein P, Skrzypczak J (2012). "[Assessment of uterine arteries Doppler in the first half of pregnancy in women with thrombophilia]". Ginekol Pol. 83 (12): 916–21. PMID 23488294.
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Astrocytoma Microchapters |
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Diagnosis |
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Treatment |
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Case Study |
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Sandbox:khurram On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Sandbox:khurram |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [4]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Fahimeh Shojaei, M.D.
Overview
On the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms, astrocytoma must be differentiated from oligodendroglioma, meningioma, hemangioblastoma, pituitary adenoma, schwannoma, primary CNS lymphoma, medulloblastoma, ependymoma, craniopharyngioma, pinealoma, AV malformation, brain aneurysm, bacterial brain abscess, tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, hydatid cyst, CNS cryptococcosis, CNS aspergillosis, and brain metastasis.
Differentiating astrocytoma from other Diseases
Differentiating astrocytoma from other diseases on the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms
On the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms, astrocytoma must be differentiated from oligodendroglioma, meningioma, hemangioblastoma, pituitary adenoma, schwannoma, primary CNS lymphoma, medulloblastoma, ependymoma, craniopharyngioma, pinealoma, AV malformation, brain aneurysm, bacterial brain abscess, tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, hydatid cyst, CNS cryptococcosis, CNS aspergillosis, and brain metastasis.
| Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Para-clinical findings | Gold standard |
Additional findings | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Symptoms | Physical examination | ||||||||||
| Lab Findings | MRI | Immunohistopathology | |||||||||
| Head- ache |
Seizure | Visual disturbance | Constitutional | Focal neurological deficit | |||||||
| Adult primary brain tumors | Glioblastoma multiforme [1][2][3] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + | − |
|
|
| |
| oligodendroglioma [4][5][6] |
+ | + | +/− | − | + | − |
|
|
| ||
| Meningioma [7][8][9] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + | − |
|
|
| ||
| Hemangioblastoma [10][11][12][13] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + | − |
|
| |||
| Pituitary adenoma [14][15][3] |
− | − | + Bitemporal hemianopia | − | − |
|
|
|
| ||
| Schwannoma [16][17][18][19] |
− | − | − | − | + | − |
|
|
| ||
| Primary CNS lymphoma [20][21] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + | − |
|
|
| ||
| Childhood primary brain tumors | Pilocytic astrocytoma [22][23][24] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + | − |
|
|
| |
| Medulloblastoma [25][26][27] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + | − |
|
|
| ||
| Ependymoma [28][3] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + | − |
|
|
| ||
| Craniopharyngioma [29][30][31][3] |
+ | +/− | + Bitemporal hemianopia | − | + |
|
|
|
| ||
| Pinealoma [32][33][34] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + vertical gaze palsy |
|
|
|
| ||
| Vascular | AV malformation [35][36][3] |
+ | + | +/− | − | +/− | − |
|
| ||
| Brain aneurysm [37][38][39][40][41] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | +/− | − |
|
|
|
| |
| Infectious | Bacterial brain abscess [42][43] |
+ | +/− | +/− | + | + |
|
|
|
|
|
| Tuberculosis [44][3][45] |
+ | +/− | +/− | + | + |
|
|
|
|
||
| Toxoplasmosis [46][47] |
+ | +/− | +/− | − | + |
|
|
|
|
||
| Hydatid cyst [48][3] |
+ | +/− | +/− | +/− | + |
|
|
|
|
| |
| CNS cryptococcosis [49] |
+ | +/− | +/− | + | + |
|
|
|
|
| |
| CNS aspergillosis [50] |
+ | +/− | +/− | + | + |
|
|
|
|
| |
| Other | Brain metastasis [51][3] |
+ | +/− | +/− | + | + | − |
|
|
| |
ABBREVIATIONS
CNS=Central nervous system, AV=Arteriovenous, CSF=Cerebrospinal fluid, NF-2=Neurofibromatosis type 2, MEN-1=Multiple endocrine neoplasia, GFAP=Glial fibrillary acidic protein, HIV=Human immunodeficiency virus, BhCG=Human chorionic gonadotropin, ESR=Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, AFB=Acid fast bacilli
References
- ↑ Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA (November 2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma". Neurol Clin. 25 (4): 1111–39, x. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004. PMID 17964028.
- ↑ Pedersen CL, Romner B (January 2013). "Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review". Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 115 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002. PMID 22819718.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Mattle, Heinrich (2017). Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide. Stuttgart New York: Thieme. ISBN 9783131364524.
- ↑ Smits M (2016). "Imaging of oligodendroglioma". Br J Radiol. 89 (1060): 20150857. doi:10.1259/bjr.20150857. PMC 4846213. PMID 26849038.
- ↑ Wesseling P, van den Bent M, Perry A (June 2015). "Oligodendroglioma: pathology, molecular mechanisms and markers". Acta Neuropathol. 129 (6): 809–27. doi:10.1007/s00401-015-1424-1. PMC 4436696. PMID 25943885.
- ↑ Kerkhof M, Benit C, Duran-Pena A, Vecht CJ (2015). "Seizures in oligodendroglial tumors". CNS Oncol. 4 (5): 347–56. doi:10.2217/cns.15.29. PMC 6082346. PMID 26478444.
- ↑ Zee CS, Chin T, Segall HD, Destian S, Ahmadi J (June 1992). "Magnetic resonance imaging of meningiomas". Semin. Ultrasound CT MR. 13 (3): 154–69. PMID 1642904.
- ↑ Shibuya M (2015). "Pathology and molecular genetics of meningioma: recent advances". Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo). 55 (1): 14–27. doi:10.2176/nmc.ra.2014-0233. PMID 25744347.
- ↑ Begnami MD, Palau M, Rushing EJ, Santi M, Quezado M (September 2007). "Evaluation of NF2 gene deletion in sporadic schwannomas, meningiomas, and ependymomas by chromogenic in situ hybridization". Hum. Pathol. 38 (9): 1345–50. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2007.01.027. PMC 2094208. PMID 17509660.
- ↑ Lonser RR, Butman JA, Huntoon K, Asthagiri AR, Wu T, Bakhtian KD, Chew EY, Zhuang Z, Linehan WM, Oldfield EH (May 2014). "Prospective natural history study of central nervous system hemangioblastomas in von Hippel-Lindau disease". J. Neurosurg. 120 (5): 1055–62. doi:10.3171/2014.1.JNS131431. PMC 4762041. PMID 24579662.
- ↑ Hussein MR (October 2007). "Central nervous system capillary haemangioblastoma: the pathologist's viewpoint". Int J Exp Pathol. 88 (5): 311–24. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2613.2007.00535.x. PMC 2517334. PMID 17877533.
- ↑ Lee SR, Sanches J, Mark AS, Dillon WP, Norman D, Newton TH (May 1989). "Posterior fossa hemangioblastomas: MR imaging". Radiology. 171 (2): 463–8. doi:10.1148/radiology.171.2.2704812. PMID 2704812.
- ↑ Perks WH, Cross JN, Sivapragasam S, Johnson P (March 1976). "Supratentorial haemangioblastoma with polycythaemia". J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 39 (3): 218–20. PMID 945331.
- ↑ Kucharczyk W, Davis DO, Kelly WM, Sze G, Norman D, Newton TH (December 1986). "Pituitary adenomas: high-resolution MR imaging at 1.5 T". Radiology. 161 (3): 761–5. doi:10.1148/radiology.161.3.3786729. PMID 3786729.
- ↑ Syro LV, Scheithauer BW, Kovacs K, Toledo RA, Londoño FJ, Ortiz LD, Rotondo F, Horvath E, Uribe H (2012). "Pituitary tumors in patients with MEN1 syndrome". Clinics (Sao Paulo). 67 Suppl 1: 43–8. PMC 3328811. PMID 22584705.
- ↑ Donnelly, Martin J.; Daly, Carmel A.; Briggs, Robert J. S. (2007). "MR imaging features of an intracochlear acoustic schwannoma". The Journal of Laryngology & Otology. 108 (12). doi:10.1017/S0022215100129056. ISSN 0022-2151.
- ↑ Feany MB, Anthony DC, Fletcher CD (May 1998). "Nerve sheath tumours with hybrid features of neurofibroma and schwannoma: a conceptual challenge". Histopathology. 32 (5): 405–10. PMID 9639114.
- ↑ Chen H, Xue L, Wang H, Wang Z, Wu H (July 2017). "Differential NF2 Gene Status in Sporadic Vestibular Schwannomas and its Prognostic Impact on Tumour Growth Patterns". Sci Rep. 7 (1): 5470. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05769-0. PMID 28710469.
- ↑ Hardell, Lennart; Hansson Mild, Kjell; Sandström, Monica; Carlberg, Michael; Hallquist, Arne; Påhlson, Anneli (2003). "Vestibular Schwannoma, Tinnitus and Cellular Telephones". Neuroepidemiology. 22 (2): 124–129. doi:10.1159/000068745. ISSN 0251-5350.
- ↑ Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ (December 1995). "Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy". Radiology. 197 (3): 649–54. doi:10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733. PMID 7480733.
- ↑ Paulus, Werner (1999). "Classification, Pathogenesis and Molecular Pathology of Primary CNS Lymphomas". Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 43 (3): 203–208. doi:10.1023/A:1006242116122. ISSN 0167-594X.
- ↑ Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA (November 2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma". Neurol Clin. 25 (4): 1111–39, x. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004. PMID 17964028.
- ↑ Pedersen CL, Romner B (January 2013). "Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review". Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 115 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002. PMID 22819718.
- ↑ Mattle, Heinrich (2017). Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide. Stuttgart New York: Thieme. ISBN 9783131364524.
- ↑ Dorwart, R H; Wara, W M; Norman, D; Levin, V A (1981). "Complete myelographic evaluation of spinal metastases from medulloblastoma". Radiology. 139 (2): 403–408. doi:10.1148/radiology.139.2.7220886. ISSN 0033-8419.
- ↑ Fruehwald-Pallamar, Julia; Puchner, Stefan B.; Rossi, Andrea; Garre, Maria L.; Cama, Armando; Koelblinger, Claus; Osborn, Anne G.; Thurnher, Majda M. (2011). "Magnetic resonance imaging spectrum of medulloblastoma". Neuroradiology. 53 (6): 387–396. doi:10.1007/s00234-010-0829-8. ISSN 0028-3940.
- ↑ Burger, P. C.; Grahmann, F. C.; Bliestle, A.; Kleihues, P. (1987). "Differentiation in the medulloblastoma". Acta Neuropathologica. 73 (2): 115–123. doi:10.1007/BF00693776. ISSN 0001-6322.
- ↑ Yuh, E. L.; Barkovich, A. J.; Gupta, N. (2009). "Imaging of ependymomas: MRI and CT". Child's Nervous System. 25 (10): 1203–1213. doi:10.1007/s00381-009-0878-7. ISSN 0256-7040.
- ↑ Brunel H, Raybaud C, Peretti-Viton P, Lena G, Girard N, Paz-Paredes A, Levrier O, Farnarier P, Manera L, Choux M (September 2002). "[Craniopharyngioma in children: MRI study of 43 cases]". Neurochirurgie (in French). 48 (4): 309–18. PMID 12407316.
- ↑ Prabhu, Vikram C.; Brown, Henry G. (2005). "The pathogenesis of craniopharyngiomas". Child's Nervous System. 21 (8–9): 622–627. doi:10.1007/s00381-005-1190-9. ISSN 0256-7040.
- ↑ Kennedy HB, Smith RJ (December 1975). "Eye signs in craniopharyngioma". Br J Ophthalmol. 59 (12): 689–95. PMC 1017436. PMID 766825.
- ↑ Ahmed SR, Shalet SM, Price DA, Pearson D (September 1983). "Human chorionic gonadotrophin secreting pineal germinoma and precocious puberty". Arch. Dis. Child. 58 (9): 743–5. PMID 6625640.
- ↑ Sano, Keiji (1976). "Pinealoma in Children". Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2 (1): 67–72. doi:10.1159/000119602. ISSN 1016-2291.
- ↑ Baggenstoss, Archie H. (1939). "PINEALOMAS". Archives of Neurology And Psychiatry. 41 (6): 1187. doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1939.02270180115011. ISSN 0096-6754.
- ↑ Kucharczyk, W; Lemme-Pleghos, L; Uske, A; Brant-Zawadzki, M; Dooms, G; Norman, D (1985). "Intracranial vascular malformations: MR and CT imaging". Radiology. 156 (2): 383–389. doi:10.1148/radiology.156.2.4011900. ISSN 0033-8419.
- ↑ Fleetwood, Ian G; Steinberg, Gary K (2002). "Arteriovenous malformations". The Lancet. 359 (9309): 863–873. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07946-1. ISSN 0140-6736.
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