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==Historical Perspective== | ==Historical Perspective== | ||
Malaria is one of the oldest discovered global diseases that continue to infect hundreds of million people worldwide. It has frequently been regarded as the most significant disease over the past 3 thousand years. The malarial syndrome has been described since antiquity in ancient China, India, Greece, and Egypt.<ref name="pmid20205846">{{cite journal| author=Cox FE| title=History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors. | journal=Parasit Vectors | year= 2010 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 5 | pmid=20205846 | doi=10.1186/1756-3305-3-5 | pmc=PMC2825508 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20205846 }} </ref> Hippocrates, Homer, and other Greek and Roman physicians often referred to malaria as the “marsh fever”, “intermittent fever”, and “ague”.<ref name="pmid20205846">{{cite journal| author=Cox FE| title=History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors. | journal=Parasit Vectors | year= 2010 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 5 | pmid=20205846 | doi=10.1186/1756-3305-3-5 | pmc=PMC2825508 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20205846 }} </ref><ref name="pmid7021827">{{cite journal| author=Bruce-Chwatt LJ| title=Alphonse Laveran's discovery 100 years ago and today's global fight against malaria. | journal=J R Soc Med | year= 1981 | volume= 74 | issue= 7 | pages= 531-6 | pmid=7021827 | doi= | pmc=PMC1439072 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7021827 }} </ref> The name “malaria” was only coined in the mid eighteenth century, derived from two Latin words that collectively mean “bad air”.<ref name="pmid81525">{{cite journal| author=Dutta HM, Dutt AK| title=Malarial ecology: a global perspective. | journal=Soc Sci Med | year= 1978 | volume= 12 | issue= 2D | pages= 69-84 | pmid=81525 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=81525 }} </ref> While originally believed to be an airborne noxious element or miasma from swamps, it was not until 1880 when Charles Louis Alphone Laveran, a French military physician, discovered that malaria is caused by an infectious parasite when he microscopically examined blood smears of 44 malaria patients and “noticed among the red corpuscles elements that seemed to be parasites”.<ref name="pmid6750753">{{cite journal| author=Laveran CL| title=Classics in infectious diseases: A newly discovered parasite in the blood of patients suffering from malaria. Parasitic etiology of attacks of malaria: Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845-1922). | journal=Rev Infect Dis | year= 1982 | volume= 4 | issue= 4 | pages= 908-11 | pmid=6750753 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6750753 }} </ref> He was eventually rewarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1907 for his overall research on malaria.<ref name="pmid20205846">{{cite journal| author=Cox FE| title=History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors. | journal=Parasit Vectors | year= 2010 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 5 | pmid=20205846 | doi=10.1186/1756-3305-3-5 | pmc=PMC2825508 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20205846 }} </ref> In 1883, King and colleagues hypothesized that malarial transmission is via a mosquito.<ref name="pmid81525">{{cite journal| author=Dutta HM, Dutt AK| title=Malarial ecology: a global perspective. | journal=Soc Sci Med | year= 1978 | volume= 12 | issue= 2D | pages= 69-84 | pmid=81525 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=81525 }} </ref> Fourteen years later in 1897, Sir Ronald Ross, an Indian-born British bacteriologist, isolated malarial oocysts in Anopheles mosquitos and was finally able to prove that the culcine mosquito is the malarial vector for avian malaria.<ref name="pmid20756775">{{cite journal| author=Ross R| title=Observations on a Condition Necessary to the Transformation of the Malaria Crescent. | journal=Br Med J | year= 1897 | volume= 1 | issue= 1883 | pages= 251-5 | pmid=20756775 | doi= | pmc=PMC2432879 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20756775 }} </ref> Consequently, he also won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902 for his research on malarial transmission and life cycle.<ref name="pmid81525">{{cite journal| author=Dutta HM, Dutt AK| title=Malarial ecology: a global perspective. | journal=Soc Sci Med | year= 1978 | volume= 12 | issue= 2D | pages= 69-84 | pmid=81525 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=81525 }} </ref> Ross’s discovery was then followed by a similar discovery one year later for Anopheles mosquito and human malaria by Italian researchers Giovanni Battista Grassi, Amico Bignami, Giuseppe Bastianelli, Angelo Celli, Camillo Golgi, and Ettore Marchiafava.<ref name="pmid20205846">{{cite journal| author=Cox FE| title=History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors. | journal=Parasit Vectors | year= 2010 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 5 | pmid=20205846 | doi=10.1186/1756-3305-3-5 | pmc=PMC2825508 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20205846 }} </ref> In 1948, Henry Shortt and Cyril Garnham unveiled the cryptic tissue phase, demonstrating that malaria first develops in the liver and enters the blood stream thereafter.<ref name="pmid18900752">{{cite journal| author=SHORTT HE, GARNHAM PC| title=Pre-erythrocytic stage in mammalian malaria parasites. | journal=Nature | year= 1948 | volume= 161 | issue= 4082 | pages= 126 | pmid=18900752 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18900752 }} </ref> Finally, Wojciech Krotoski showed in 1982 that malaria has a dormant exoerythrocytic stage in the liver, explaining the long latency period observed between infection and appearance in the bloodstream in specific strains.<ref name="pmid6816080">{{cite journal| author=Krotoski WA, Collins WE, Bray RS, Garnham PC, Cogswell FB, Gwadz RW et al.| title=Demonstration of hypnozoites in sporozoite-transmitted Plasmodium vivax infection. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 1982 | volume= 31 | issue= 6 | pages= 1291-3 | pmid=6816080 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6816080 }} </ref> | |||
Robert Woodward and William vonEggers Doering first developed the total synthesis of quinine in 1944 following Paul Rabe and Karl Kindler’s report on converting d-quinotoxine into quinine in 1918.<ref name="pmid17294412">{{cite journal| author=Seeman JI| title=The Woodward-Doering/Rabe-Kindler total synthesis of quinine: setting the record straight. | journal=Angew Chem Int Ed Engl | year= 2007 | volume= 46 | issue= 9 | pages= 1378-413 | pmid=17294412 | doi=10.1002/anie.200601551 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17294412 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15669029">{{cite journal| author=Kaufman TS, Rúveda EA| title=The quest for quinine: those who won the battles and those who won the war. | journal=Angew Chem Int Ed Engl | year= 2005 | volume= 44 | issue= 6 | pages= 854-85 | pmid=15669029 | doi=10.1002/anie.200400663 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15669029 }} </ref> Originally, quinine is a cinchona alkaloid derived from barks of cinchona and Remijia tree species that was proven to be effective in the treatment of malaria. With Woodward and Doering’s discovery of the first artificial synthetic quinine, the first pharmacologic agent to treat malaria was produced.<ref name="pmid15669029">{{cite journal| author=Kaufman TS, Rúveda EA| title=The quest for quinine: those who won the battles and those who won the war. | journal=Angew Chem Int Ed Engl | year= 2005 | volume= 44 | issue= 6 | pages= 854-85 | pmid=15669029 | doi=10.1002/anie.200400663 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15669029 }} </ref> | |||
In February 2002, the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' and other press outlets<ref name="bbcnewdrug2002">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1821686.stm Malaria drug offers new hope]. ''BBC News'' 2002-02-15.</ref> announced progress on a new treatment for infected individuals. A team of French and South African researchers had identified a new drug they were calling "G25".<ref>[http://www.forumlabo.com/anglais/actus/actus/cnrs/0302onestep.htm One step closer to conquering malaria]</ref> It cured malaria in test primates by blocking the ability of the parasite to copy itself within the red blood cells of its victims. In 2005 the same team of researchers published their research on achieving an oral form, which they refer to as "TE3" or "te3".<ref>Salom-Roig, X. ''et al''. (2005) [http://www.bentham.org/cchts/samples/cchts8-1/0007A.pdf Dual molecules as new antimalarials]. ''Combinatorial Chemistry & High Throughput Screening'' 8:49-62.</ref> As of early 2006, there is no information in the mainstream press as to when this family of drugs will become commercially available. | In February 2002, the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' and other press outlets<ref name="bbcnewdrug2002">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1821686.stm Malaria drug offers new hope]. ''BBC News'' 2002-02-15.</ref> announced progress on a new treatment for infected individuals. A team of French and South African researchers had identified a new drug they were calling "G25".<ref>[http://www.forumlabo.com/anglais/actus/actus/cnrs/0302onestep.htm One step closer to conquering malaria]</ref> It cured malaria in test primates by blocking the ability of the parasite to copy itself within the red blood cells of its victims. In 2005 the same team of researchers published their research on achieving an oral form, which they refer to as "TE3" or "te3".<ref>Salom-Roig, X. ''et al''. (2005) [http://www.bentham.org/cchts/samples/cchts8-1/0007A.pdf Dual molecules as new antimalarials]. ''Combinatorial Chemistry & High Throughput Screening'' 8:49-62.</ref> As of early 2006, there is no information in the mainstream press as to when this family of drugs will become commercially available. | ||
In 1996, Professor Geoff McFadden stumbled upon the work of British biologist Ian Wilson, who had discovered that the plasmodia responsible for causing malaria retained parts of chloroplasts<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2007/1902657.htm |title=Herbicides as a treatment for malaria|accessdate=2007-09-25 |format= |work= }}</ref>, an organelle usually found in plants, complete with their own functioning genomes. This led Professor McFadden to the realisation that any number of herbicides may in fact be successful in the fight against malaria, and so he set about trialing large numbers of them, and enjoyed a 75% success rate. | In 1996, Professor Geoff McFadden stumbled upon the work of British biologist Ian Wilson, who had discovered that the plasmodia responsible for causing malaria retained parts of chloroplasts<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2007/1902657.htm |title=Herbicides as a treatment for malaria|accessdate=2007-09-25 |format= |work= }}</ref>, an organelle usually found in plants, complete with their own functioning genomes. This led Professor McFadden to the realisation that any number of herbicides may in fact be successful in the fight against malaria, and so he set about trialing large numbers of them, and enjoyed a 75% success rate. | ||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]
Overview
Malaria has infected humans for over 50,000 years, and may have been a human pathogen for the entire history of our species.[1] Indeed, close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees, our closest relatives.[2] References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout recorded history, beginning in 2700 BC in China.[3] The term malaria originates from medieval Italian: mala aria — "bad air"; and the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps.
Historical Perspective
Malaria is one of the oldest discovered global diseases that continue to infect hundreds of million people worldwide. It has frequently been regarded as the most significant disease over the past 3 thousand years. The malarial syndrome has been described since antiquity in ancient China, India, Greece, and Egypt.[4] Hippocrates, Homer, and other Greek and Roman physicians often referred to malaria as the “marsh fever”, “intermittent fever”, and “ague”.[4][5] The name “malaria” was only coined in the mid eighteenth century, derived from two Latin words that collectively mean “bad air”.[6] While originally believed to be an airborne noxious element or miasma from swamps, it was not until 1880 when Charles Louis Alphone Laveran, a French military physician, discovered that malaria is caused by an infectious parasite when he microscopically examined blood smears of 44 malaria patients and “noticed among the red corpuscles elements that seemed to be parasites”.[7] He was eventually rewarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1907 for his overall research on malaria.[4] In 1883, King and colleagues hypothesized that malarial transmission is via a mosquito.[6] Fourteen years later in 1897, Sir Ronald Ross, an Indian-born British bacteriologist, isolated malarial oocysts in Anopheles mosquitos and was finally able to prove that the culcine mosquito is the malarial vector for avian malaria.[8] Consequently, he also won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902 for his research on malarial transmission and life cycle.[6] Ross’s discovery was then followed by a similar discovery one year later for Anopheles mosquito and human malaria by Italian researchers Giovanni Battista Grassi, Amico Bignami, Giuseppe Bastianelli, Angelo Celli, Camillo Golgi, and Ettore Marchiafava.[4] In 1948, Henry Shortt and Cyril Garnham unveiled the cryptic tissue phase, demonstrating that malaria first develops in the liver and enters the blood stream thereafter.[9] Finally, Wojciech Krotoski showed in 1982 that malaria has a dormant exoerythrocytic stage in the liver, explaining the long latency period observed between infection and appearance in the bloodstream in specific strains.[10]
Robert Woodward and William vonEggers Doering first developed the total synthesis of quinine in 1944 following Paul Rabe and Karl Kindler’s report on converting d-quinotoxine into quinine in 1918.[11][12] Originally, quinine is a cinchona alkaloid derived from barks of cinchona and Remijia tree species that was proven to be effective in the treatment of malaria. With Woodward and Doering’s discovery of the first artificial synthetic quinine, the first pharmacologic agent to treat malaria was produced.[12]
In February 2002, the journal Science and other press outlets[13] announced progress on a new treatment for infected individuals. A team of French and South African researchers had identified a new drug they were calling "G25".[14] It cured malaria in test primates by blocking the ability of the parasite to copy itself within the red blood cells of its victims. In 2005 the same team of researchers published their research on achieving an oral form, which they refer to as "TE3" or "te3".[15] As of early 2006, there is no information in the mainstream press as to when this family of drugs will become commercially available. In 1996, Professor Geoff McFadden stumbled upon the work of British biologist Ian Wilson, who had discovered that the plasmodia responsible for causing malaria retained parts of chloroplasts[16], an organelle usually found in plants, complete with their own functioning genomes. This led Professor McFadden to the realisation that any number of herbicides may in fact be successful in the fight against malaria, and so he set about trialing large numbers of them, and enjoyed a 75% success rate.
These "apicoplasts" are thought to have originated through the endosymbiosis of algae[17] and play a crucial role in fatty acid bio-synthesis in plasmodia[18]. To date, 466 proteins have been found to be produced by apicoplasts[19] and these are now being looked at as possible targets for novel anti-malarial drugs.
Malaria in the United States
- Malaria was eliminated from the United States in the early 1950's.[20]
- Between 1957 and 2011, in the United States, 63 outbreaks of locally transmitted mosquito-borne malaria have occurred; in such outbreaks, local mosquitoes become infected by biting persons carrying malaria parasites (acquired in endemic areas) and then transmit malaria to local residents.[20]
- During 1963-2011, 97 cases of transfusion-transmitted malaria were reported in the United States; approximately two thirds of these cases could have been prevented if the implicated donors had been deferred according to established guidelines.[20]
References
- ↑ Joy D, Feng X, Mu J; et al. (2003). "Early origin and recent expansion of Plasmodium falciparum". Science. 300 (5617): 318–21. PMID 12690197.
- ↑ Escalante A, Freeland D, Collins W, Lal A (1998). "The evolution of primate malaria parasites based on the gene encoding cytochrome b from the linear mitochondrial genome". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 95 (14): 8124–9. PMID 9653151.
- ↑ Cox F (2002). "History of human parasitology". Clin Microbiol Rev. 15 (4): 595–612. PMID 12364371.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Cox FE (2010). "History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors". Parasit Vectors. 3 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-3-5. PMC 2825508. PMID 20205846.
- ↑ Bruce-Chwatt LJ (1981). "Alphonse Laveran's discovery 100 years ago and today's global fight against malaria". J R Soc Med. 74 (7): 531–6. PMC 1439072. PMID 7021827.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Dutta HM, Dutt AK (1978). "Malarial ecology: a global perspective". Soc Sci Med. 12 (2D): 69–84. PMID 81525.
- ↑ Laveran CL (1982). "Classics in infectious diseases: A newly discovered parasite in the blood of patients suffering from malaria. Parasitic etiology of attacks of malaria: Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845-1922)". Rev Infect Dis. 4 (4): 908–11. PMID 6750753.
- ↑ Ross R (1897). "Observations on a Condition Necessary to the Transformation of the Malaria Crescent". Br Med J. 1 (1883): 251–5. PMC 2432879. PMID 20756775.
- ↑ SHORTT HE, GARNHAM PC (1948). "Pre-erythrocytic stage in mammalian malaria parasites". Nature. 161 (4082): 126. PMID 18900752.
- ↑ Krotoski WA, Collins WE, Bray RS, Garnham PC, Cogswell FB, Gwadz RW; et al. (1982). "Demonstration of hypnozoites in sporozoite-transmitted Plasmodium vivax infection". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 31 (6): 1291–3. PMID 6816080.
- ↑ Seeman JI (2007). "The Woodward-Doering/Rabe-Kindler total synthesis of quinine: setting the record straight". Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 46 (9): 1378–413. doi:10.1002/anie.200601551. PMID 17294412.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Kaufman TS, Rúveda EA (2005). "The quest for quinine: those who won the battles and those who won the war". Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 44 (6): 854–85. doi:10.1002/anie.200400663. PMID 15669029.
- ↑ Malaria drug offers new hope. BBC News 2002-02-15.
- ↑ One step closer to conquering malaria
- ↑ Salom-Roig, X. et al. (2005) Dual molecules as new antimalarials. Combinatorial Chemistry & High Throughput Screening 8:49-62.
- ↑ "Herbicides as a treatment for malaria". Retrieved 2007-09-25.
- ↑ Khöler, Sabine (1997). "A Plastid of Probable Green Algal Origin in Apicomplexan Parasites". Science. 275 (5305): 1485–1489. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Gardner, Malcom (1998). "Chromosome 2 Sequence of the Human Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum". Science. 282 (5391): 1126–1132. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Foth, Bernado (2003). "Dissecting Apicoplast Targeting in the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum". Science. 299 (5607): 705–708. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Malaria Facts. CDC.gov accessed on 07/24/2014 [1]