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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Legionnaires' disease acquired its name in 1976 when an outbreak of [[pneumonia]] occurred among people attending a convention of the American Legion in Philadelphia. On January 18, 1977 the causative agent was identified as a previously unknown [[bacterium]], subsequently named ''[[Legionella]]''. There have been numerous outbreaks of Legionnaires since it was first discovered. Some of the outbreaks of Legionella are listed below in chronological order. | [[Legionnaires' disease]] acquired its name in 1976 when an outbreak of [[pneumonia]] occurred among people attending a convention of the American Legion in Philadelphia. On January 18, 1977 the causative agent was identified as a previously unknown [[bacterium]], subsequently named ''[[Legionella]]''. There have been numerous outbreaks of Legionnaires since it was first discovered. Some of the outbreaks of Legionella are listed below in chronological order. | ||
== Historical Perspective == | == Historical Perspective == | ||
===Philadelphia, 1976=== | ===Philadelphia, 1976=== | ||
The first recognized | The first recognized [[Legionella]] outbreak occurred in 1976 during a meeting of the American Legion in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. About 29 of the 182 people that contracted the infection died <ref>Fraser DW, Tsai TR, Orenstein W, et al. Legionnaires’ disease: description of an epidemic of pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1977; 297: 1189–97.</ref>. It was after the [[bacterium]] had been successfully isolated that previous cases of [[Legionella]] were identified. | ||
===United Kingdom, 1985=== | ===United Kingdom, 1985=== | ||
In 1985, Stafford District General Hospital experienced a Legionella outbreak. A total of 68 confirmed cases were treated in hospital and 22 of these patients died. A further 35 patients were suspected cases of Legionnaires' disease, 14 of whom only required treatment at home. Legionella was found in the water within the cooling tower and a chiller unit which cooled the air entering the outpatient department. The chiller unit is believed to be the major source of the outbreak <ref name="pmid2347381">{{cite journal| author=O'Mahony MC, Stanwell-Smith RE, Tillett HE, Harper D, Hutchison JG, Farrell ID | display-authors=etal| title=The Stafford outbreak of Legionnaires' disease. | journal=Epidemiol Infect | year= 1990 | volume= 104 | issue= 3 | pages= 361-80 | pmid=2347381 | doi=10.1017/s0950268800047385 | pmc=2271767 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2347381 }} </ref>. | In 1985, Stafford District General Hospital experienced a [[Legionella]] outbreak. A total of 68 confirmed cases were treated in hospital and 22 of these patients died. A further 35 patients were suspected cases of Legionnaires' disease, 14 of whom only required treatment at home. [[Legionella]] was found in the water within the cooling tower and a chiller unit which cooled the air entering the outpatient department. The chiller unit is believed to be the major source of the outbreak <ref name="pmid2347381">{{cite journal| author=O'Mahony MC, Stanwell-Smith RE, Tillett HE, Harper D, Hutchison JG, Farrell ID | display-authors=etal| title=The Stafford outbreak of Legionnaires' disease. | journal=Epidemiol Infect | year= 1990 | volume= 104 | issue= 3 | pages= 361-80 | pmid=2347381 | doi=10.1017/s0950268800047385 | pmc=2271767 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2347381 }} </ref>. | ||
===Netherlands, 1999=== | ===Netherlands, 1999=== | ||
During a flower exhibition in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands, an outbreak of Legionella occurred. It is believed to have been caused by a contamination of the whirlpools in halls 3 and 4, and the sprinkler in hall 8, all of which tested culture positive for Legionella. There were 133 confirmed cases and 55 possible cases out of the 77061 visitors to the exhibition <ref name="pmid11799746">{{cite journal| author=Cordasco G, Cicciù D, Lo Giudice G, Matarese G, Nucera R, Mazza M| title=Kinesiographic investigations in children with increased nasal airways resistance. | journal=Bull Group Int Rech Sci Stomatol Odontol | year= 1999 | volume= 41 | issue= 2-3 | pages= 67-72 | pmid=11799746 | doi=10.3201/eid0801.010176 | pmc=2730281 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11799746 }} </ref>. | During a flower exhibition in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands, an outbreak of [[Legionella]] occurred. It is believed to have been caused by a contamination of the whirlpools in halls 3 and 4, and the sprinkler in hall 8, all of which tested culture positive for [[Legionella]]. There were 133 confirmed cases and 55 possible cases out of the 77061 visitors to the exhibition <ref name="pmid11799746">{{cite journal| author=Cordasco G, Cicciù D, Lo Giudice G, Matarese G, Nucera R, Mazza M| title=Kinesiographic investigations in children with increased nasal airways resistance. | journal=Bull Group Int Rech Sci Stomatol Odontol | year= 1999 | volume= 41 | issue= 2-3 | pages= 67-72 | pmid=11799746 | doi=10.3201/eid0801.010176 | pmc=2730281 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11799746 }} </ref>. | ||
===Spain, 2001=== | ===Spain, 2001=== | ||
In Murcia, Spain, over 800 suspected cases of Legionnaires' disease were recorded. Of these cases, 449 were confirmed to be caused by Legionella. This is currently the largest outbreak of Legionella ever recorded. About 1% of affected patients died from the disease <ref name="pmid12967487">{{cite journal| author=García-Fulgueiras A, Navarro C, Fenoll D, García J, González-Diego P, Jiménez-Buñuales T | display-authors=etal| title=Legionnaires' disease outbreak in Murcia, Spain. | journal=Emerg Infect Dis | year= 2003 | volume= 9 | issue= 8 | pages= 915-21 | pmid=12967487 | doi=10.3201/eid0908.030337 | pmc=3020623 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12967487 }} </ref>. | In Murcia, Spain, over 800 suspected cases of [[Legionnaires' disease]] were recorded. Of these cases, 449 were confirmed to be caused by [[Legionella]]. This is currently the largest outbreak of [[Legionella]] ever recorded. About 1% of affected patients died from the disease <ref name="pmid12967487">{{cite journal| author=García-Fulgueiras A, Navarro C, Fenoll D, García J, González-Diego P, Jiménez-Buñuales T | display-authors=etal| title=Legionnaires' disease outbreak in Murcia, Spain. | journal=Emerg Infect Dis | year= 2003 | volume= 9 | issue= 8 | pages= 915-21 | pmid=12967487 | doi=10.3201/eid0908.030337 | pmc=3020623 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12967487 }} </ref>. | ||
===Norway, 2001=== | ===Norway, 2001=== | ||
The first recognized outbreak of Legionella in Norway was in 2001 when 28 people were infected in the city of Stavanger, and seven died. Of the 28 patients, 21 were within the city of Stavanger, five were in other areas in Norway, and two were other countries, with one being in England and the other in Germany. This was initially a mystery to the investigators. However, it was discovered that a cooling unit from a nearby hotel was the source of the infection. The air outlet was found to be just over 16 feet above the ground and located close to a bus station. This was determined source of contact for the patient in Germany and the patient in England <ref>Outbreak of legionellosis in Stavanger, Norway – final report Blystad, H and Bjorlow, E and Aavitsland, P and Holm, J, Weekly releases (1997–2007), 5, 2059 (2001), https://doi.org/10.2807/esw.05.47.02059-en.</ref> | The first recognized outbreak of [[Legionella]] in Norway was in 2001 when 28 people were infected in the city of Stavanger, and seven died. Of the 28 patients, 21 were within the city of Stavanger, five were in other areas in Norway, and two were from other countries, with one being in England and the other in Germany. This was initially a mystery to the investigators. However, it was discovered that a cooling unit from a nearby hotel was the source of the infection. The air outlet was found to be just over 16 feet above the ground and located close to a bus station. This was determined source of contact for the patient in Germany and the patient in England <ref>Outbreak of legionellosis in Stavanger, Norway – final report Blystad, H and Bjorlow, E and Aavitsland, P and Holm, J, Weekly releases (1997–2007), 5, 2059 (2001), https://doi.org/10.2807/esw.05.47.02059-en.</ref> | ||
===United Kingdom, 2002=== | ===Barrow-In-Furness, United Kingdom, 2002=== | ||
In 2002, six women and one man in Barrow-In-Furness died as a result of the illness, another 172 people also contracted the [[disease]]. The outbreak was traced to a contaminated cooling tower at the town’s Forum 28 arts center. | In 2002, six women and one man in Barrow-In-Furness died as a result of the illness, another 172 people also contracted the [[disease]]. The outbreak was traced to a contaminated cooling tower at the town’s Forum 28 arts center. | ||
===France, 2004=== | ===France, 2004=== | ||
Between November 2003 and January 2004, an outbreak of [[Legionnaires disease]] occurred in Pas-de-Calais, France. There were 18 fatalities out of the 86 laboratory-confirmed cases, giving the outbreak a mortality rate of about 21%. A Legionella pneumophila strain named Lens was isolated from samples of air, wastewater, and cooling towers from plant A. Researchers determined that the dispersion extended over a distance of at least 6 km (3.75 miles) from the plant. <ref name="pmid16323138">{{cite journal| author=Nguyen TM, Ilef D, Jarraud S, Rouil L, Campese C, Che D | display-authors=etal| title=A community-wide outbreak of legionnaires disease linked to industrial cooling towers--how far can contaminated aerosols spread? | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 2006 | volume= 193 | issue= 1 | pages= 102-11 | pmid=16323138 | doi=10.1086/498575 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16323138 }} </ref> | Between November 2003 and January 2004, an outbreak of [[Legionnaires' disease]] occurred in Pas-de-Calais, France. There were 18 fatalities out of the 86 laboratory-confirmed cases, giving the outbreak a mortality rate of about 21%. A [[Legionella pneumophila]] strain named Lens was isolated from samples of air, wastewater, and cooling towers from plant A. Researchers determined that the dispersion extended over a distance of at least 6 km (3.75 miles) from the plant. <ref name="pmid16323138">{{cite journal| author=Nguyen TM, Ilef D, Jarraud S, Rouil L, Campese C, Che D | display-authors=etal| title=A community-wide outbreak of legionnaires disease linked to industrial cooling towers--how far can contaminated aerosols spread? | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 2006 | volume= 193 | issue= 1 | pages= 102-11 | pmid=16323138 | doi=10.1086/498575 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16323138 }} </ref> | ||
===Norway, 2005=== | ===Norway, 2005=== | ||
In May 2005 there was another outbreak of [[Legionnaires disease]] in Norway, in the town of Fredrikstad. Initially, 56 patients were confirmed infected and ten people were dead. However, on serological testing of other patients with community acquired [[pneumonia]], another 47 patients were discovered to have the disease, bringing the total for the oubreak to at least 103, 16 of whom are probable cases. The source of the outbreak unexpectedly came from an air scrubber that disseminated that bacterium over a distance of about 10 km (6.25 miles). <ref name="pmid18171215">{{cite journal| author=Nygård K, Werner-Johansen Ø, Rønsen S, Caugant DA, Simonsen Ø, Kanestrøm A | display-authors=etal| title=An outbreak of legionnaires disease caused by long-distance spread from an industrial air scrubber in Sarpsborg, Norway. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2008 | volume= 46 | issue= 1 | pages= 61-9 | pmid=18171215 | doi=10.1086/524016 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18171215 }} </ref> <ref name="pmid25887275">{{cite journal| author=Simonsen Ø, Wedege E, Kanestrøm A, Bolstad K, Aaberge IS, Ragnhildstveit E | display-authors=etal| title=Characterization of the extent of a large outbreak of Legionnaires' disease by serological assays. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 163 | pmid=25887275 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-0903-2 | pmc=4383209 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25887275 }} </ref> | In May 2005 there was another outbreak of [[Legionnaires' disease]] in Norway, in the town of Fredrikstad. Initially, 56 patients were confirmed infected and ten people were dead. However, on serological testing of other patients with community acquired [[pneumonia]], another 47 patients were discovered to have the disease, bringing the total for the oubreak to at least 103, 16 of whom are probable cases. The source of the outbreak unexpectedly came from an air scrubber that disseminated that [[bacterium]] over a distance of about 10 km (6.25 miles). <ref name="pmid18171215">{{cite journal| author=Nygård K, Werner-Johansen Ø, Rønsen S, Caugant DA, Simonsen Ø, Kanestrøm A | display-authors=etal| title=An outbreak of legionnaires disease caused by long-distance spread from an industrial air scrubber in Sarpsborg, Norway. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2008 | volume= 46 | issue= 1 | pages= 61-9 | pmid=18171215 | doi=10.1086/524016 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18171215 }} </ref> <ref name="pmid25887275">{{cite journal| author=Simonsen Ø, Wedege E, Kanestrøm A, Bolstad K, Aaberge IS, Ragnhildstveit E | display-authors=etal| title=Characterization of the extent of a large outbreak of Legionnaires' disease by serological assays. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 163 | pmid=25887275 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-0903-2 | pmc=4383209 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25887275 }} </ref> | ||
===New Zealand, 2005=== | ===New Zealand, 2005=== | ||
In mid-2005, Christchurch, New Zealand experienced an outbreak of [[Legionnaires disease]]. There were 3 deaths out of the 19 confirmed cases. Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 (Lpsg1) was identified as the causative agent for all cases. A water cooling tower located in the center of the clusters is believed to be the source of the outbreak<ref name="pmid22697112">{{cite journal| author=White PS, Graham FF, Harte DJ, Baker MG, Ambrose CD, Humphrey AR| title=Epidemiological investigation of a Legionnaires' disease outbreak in Christchurch, New Zealand: the value of spatial methods for practical public health. | journal=Epidemiol Infect | year= 2013 | volume= 141 | issue= 4 | pages= 789-99 | pmid=22697112 | doi=10.1017/S0950268812000994 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22697112 }} </ref>. | In mid-2005, Christchurch, New Zealand experienced an outbreak of [[Legionnaires' disease]]. There were 3 deaths out of the 19 confirmed cases. [[Legionella pneumophila]] serogroup 1 (Lpsg1) was identified as the causative agent for all cases. A water cooling tower located in the center of the clusters is believed to be the source of the outbreak<ref name="pmid22697112">{{cite journal| author=White PS, Graham FF, Harte DJ, Baker MG, Ambrose CD, Humphrey AR| title=Epidemiological investigation of a Legionnaires' disease outbreak in Christchurch, New Zealand: the value of spatial methods for practical public health. | journal=Epidemiol Infect | year= 2013 | volume= 141 | issue= 4 | pages= 789-99 | pmid=22697112 | doi=10.1017/S0950268812000994 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22697112 }} </ref>. | ||
===Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2007=== | ===Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2007=== | ||
An outbreak of [[Legionnaires disease]] at the Seven Oaks Home for the Aged, a nursing home in Toronto, in the province of Ontario, Canada from September to October 2005 resulted in illness in 135 people, 23 (17%) of whom died. Researchers confirmed that a contaminated air conditioning cooling tower was the source of the outbreak. <ref name="pmid17314363">{{cite journal| author=Gilmour MW, Bernard K, Tracz DM, Olson AB, Corbett CR, Burdz T | display-authors=etal| title=Molecular typing of a Legionella pneumophila outbreak in Ontario, Canada. | journal=J Med Microbiol | year= 2007 | volume= 56 | issue= Pt 3 | pages= 336-341 | pmid=17314363 | doi=10.1099/jmm.0.46738-0 | pmc=2884934 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17314363 }} </ref> | An outbreak of [[Legionnaires' disease]] at the Seven Oaks Home for the Aged, a nursing home in Toronto, in the province of Ontario, Canada from September to October 2005 resulted in illness in 135 people, 23 (17%) of whom died. Researchers confirmed that a contaminated air conditioning cooling tower was the source of the outbreak. <ref name="pmid17314363">{{cite journal| author=Gilmour MW, Bernard K, Tracz DM, Olson AB, Corbett CR, Burdz T | display-authors=etal| title=Molecular typing of a Legionella pneumophila outbreak in Ontario, Canada. | journal=J Med Microbiol | year= 2007 | volume= 56 | issue= Pt 3 | pages= 336-341 | pmid=17314363 | doi=10.1099/jmm.0.46738-0 | pmc=2884934 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17314363 }} </ref> | ||
=== | ===Québec City, Canada, 2012=== | ||
An outbreak linked to contaminated water in an industrial cooling tower caused 181 confirmed cases, 14 of which resulted in death <ref name="pmid24829561">{{cite journal| author=Trudel L, Veillette M, Bonifait L, Duchaine C| title=Management of the 2012 Legionella crisis in Quebec City: need for a better communication between resources and knowledge transfer. | journal=Front Microbiol | year= 2014 | volume= 5 | issue= | pages= 182 | pmid=24829561 | doi=10.3389/fmicb.2014.00182 | pmc=4017129 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24829561 }} </ref>. | |||
===Edinburg, Scotland, UK, 2012=== | |||
In 2012, 50 confirmed cases and 49 suspected cases of [[Legionella]] occurred in Edinburg, Scotland. It led to the death of 4 people. Cooling towers in the affected area are suspected to be the cause of the outbreak. <ref name="pmid22835439">{{cite journal| author=McCormick D, Thorn S, Milne D, Evans C, Stevenson J, Llano M | display-authors=etal| title=Public health response to an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Edinburgh, United Kingdom, June 2012. | journal=Euro Surveill | year= 2012 | volume= 17 | issue= 28 | pages= | pmid=22835439 | doi=10.2807/ese.17.28.20216-en | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22835439 }} </ref> | |||
===Vila Franca de Xira district, Lisbon, Portugal, 2014=== | |||
A widespread outbreak in the Vila Franca de Xira district infected 377 people, and caused the death of 14. A combination of factors led to the outbreak becoming widespread including temperatures that were unusually high for that time of the year, leading to increased proliferation of [[Legionella]] in the cooling tower to which the outbreak was traced, and the high humidity that is believed to increase the spread of [[Legionella]] <ref name="pmid29572569">{{cite journal| author=Russo A, Gouveia CM, Soares PMM, Cardoso RM, Mendes MT, Trigo RM| title=The unprecedented 2014 Legionnaires' disease outbreak in Portugal: atmospheric driving mechanisms. | journal=Int J Biometeorol | year= 2018 | volume= 62 | issue= 7 | pages= 1167-1179 | pmid=29572569 | doi=10.1007/s00484-018-1520-8 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29572569 }} </ref> <ref name="pmid29048279">{{cite journal| author=Simmering JE, Polgreen LA, Hornick DB, Sewell DK, Polgreen PM| title=Weather-Dependent Risk for Legionnaires' Disease, United States. | journal=Emerg Infect Dis | year= 2017 | volume= 23 | issue= 11 | pages= 1843-1851 | pmid=29048279 | doi=10.3201/eid2311.170137 | pmc=5652433 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29048279 }} </ref>. | |||
===Fletcher, North Carolina, United States, 2019=== | |||
Whirlpool spas at a state fair were linked to a [[Legionella]] outbreak in Fletcher, North Carolina, United States that claimed the lives of 4 out of the 136 confirmed cases people infected. <ref name="pmid33886659">{{cite journal| author=Han XY| title=Effects of climate changes and road exposure on the rapidly rising legionellosis incidence rates in the United States. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2021 | volume= 16 | issue= 4 | pages= e0250364 | pmid=33886659 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0250364 | pmc=8061983 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33886659 }} </ref> | |||
Latest revision as of 07:55, 4 March 2022
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Ogechukwu Hannah Nnabude, MD Tarek Nafee, M.D. [2]
Overview
Legionnaires' disease acquired its name in 1976 when an outbreak of pneumonia occurred among people attending a convention of the American Legion in Philadelphia. On January 18, 1977 the causative agent was identified as a previously unknown bacterium, subsequently named Legionella. There have been numerous outbreaks of Legionnaires since it was first discovered. Some of the outbreaks of Legionella are listed below in chronological order.
Historical Perspective
Philadelphia, 1976
The first recognized Legionella outbreak occurred in 1976 during a meeting of the American Legion in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. About 29 of the 182 people that contracted the infection died [1]. It was after the bacterium had been successfully isolated that previous cases of Legionella were identified.
United Kingdom, 1985
In 1985, Stafford District General Hospital experienced a Legionella outbreak. A total of 68 confirmed cases were treated in hospital and 22 of these patients died. A further 35 patients were suspected cases of Legionnaires' disease, 14 of whom only required treatment at home. Legionella was found in the water within the cooling tower and a chiller unit which cooled the air entering the outpatient department. The chiller unit is believed to be the major source of the outbreak [2].
Netherlands, 1999
During a flower exhibition in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands, an outbreak of Legionella occurred. It is believed to have been caused by a contamination of the whirlpools in halls 3 and 4, and the sprinkler in hall 8, all of which tested culture positive for Legionella. There were 133 confirmed cases and 55 possible cases out of the 77061 visitors to the exhibition [3].
Spain, 2001
In Murcia, Spain, over 800 suspected cases of Legionnaires' disease were recorded. Of these cases, 449 were confirmed to be caused by Legionella. This is currently the largest outbreak of Legionella ever recorded. About 1% of affected patients died from the disease [4].
Norway, 2001
The first recognized outbreak of Legionella in Norway was in 2001 when 28 people were infected in the city of Stavanger, and seven died. Of the 28 patients, 21 were within the city of Stavanger, five were in other areas in Norway, and two were from other countries, with one being in England and the other in Germany. This was initially a mystery to the investigators. However, it was discovered that a cooling unit from a nearby hotel was the source of the infection. The air outlet was found to be just over 16 feet above the ground and located close to a bus station. This was determined source of contact for the patient in Germany and the patient in England [5]
Barrow-In-Furness, United Kingdom, 2002
In 2002, six women and one man in Barrow-In-Furness died as a result of the illness, another 172 people also contracted the disease. The outbreak was traced to a contaminated cooling tower at the town’s Forum 28 arts center.
France, 2004
Between November 2003 and January 2004, an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease occurred in Pas-de-Calais, France. There were 18 fatalities out of the 86 laboratory-confirmed cases, giving the outbreak a mortality rate of about 21%. A Legionella pneumophila strain named Lens was isolated from samples of air, wastewater, and cooling towers from plant A. Researchers determined that the dispersion extended over a distance of at least 6 km (3.75 miles) from the plant. [6]
Norway, 2005
In May 2005 there was another outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Norway, in the town of Fredrikstad. Initially, 56 patients were confirmed infected and ten people were dead. However, on serological testing of other patients with community acquired pneumonia, another 47 patients were discovered to have the disease, bringing the total for the oubreak to at least 103, 16 of whom are probable cases. The source of the outbreak unexpectedly came from an air scrubber that disseminated that bacterium over a distance of about 10 km (6.25 miles). [7] [8]
New Zealand, 2005
In mid-2005, Christchurch, New Zealand experienced an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease. There were 3 deaths out of the 19 confirmed cases. Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 (Lpsg1) was identified as the causative agent for all cases. A water cooling tower located in the center of the clusters is believed to be the source of the outbreak[9].
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2007
An outbreak of Legionnaires' disease at the Seven Oaks Home for the Aged, a nursing home in Toronto, in the province of Ontario, Canada from September to October 2005 resulted in illness in 135 people, 23 (17%) of whom died. Researchers confirmed that a contaminated air conditioning cooling tower was the source of the outbreak. [10]
Québec City, Canada, 2012
An outbreak linked to contaminated water in an industrial cooling tower caused 181 confirmed cases, 14 of which resulted in death [11].
Edinburg, Scotland, UK, 2012
In 2012, 50 confirmed cases and 49 suspected cases of Legionella occurred in Edinburg, Scotland. It led to the death of 4 people. Cooling towers in the affected area are suspected to be the cause of the outbreak. [12]
Vila Franca de Xira district, Lisbon, Portugal, 2014
A widespread outbreak in the Vila Franca de Xira district infected 377 people, and caused the death of 14. A combination of factors led to the outbreak becoming widespread including temperatures that were unusually high for that time of the year, leading to increased proliferation of Legionella in the cooling tower to which the outbreak was traced, and the high humidity that is believed to increase the spread of Legionella [13] [14].
Fletcher, North Carolina, United States, 2019
Whirlpool spas at a state fair were linked to a Legionella outbreak in Fletcher, North Carolina, United States that claimed the lives of 4 out of the 136 confirmed cases people infected. [15]
References
- ↑ Fraser DW, Tsai TR, Orenstein W, et al. Legionnaires’ disease: description of an epidemic of pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1977; 297: 1189–97.
- ↑ O'Mahony MC, Stanwell-Smith RE, Tillett HE, Harper D, Hutchison JG, Farrell ID; et al. (1990). "The Stafford outbreak of Legionnaires' disease". Epidemiol Infect. 104 (3): 361–80. doi:10.1017/s0950268800047385. PMC 2271767. PMID 2347381.
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- ↑ Outbreak of legionellosis in Stavanger, Norway – final report Blystad, H and Bjorlow, E and Aavitsland, P and Holm, J, Weekly releases (1997–2007), 5, 2059 (2001), https://doi.org/10.2807/esw.05.47.02059-en.
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- ↑ White PS, Graham FF, Harte DJ, Baker MG, Ambrose CD, Humphrey AR (2013). "Epidemiological investigation of a Legionnaires' disease outbreak in Christchurch, New Zealand: the value of spatial methods for practical public health". Epidemiol Infect. 141 (4): 789–99. doi:10.1017/S0950268812000994. PMID 22697112.
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- ↑ Trudel L, Veillette M, Bonifait L, Duchaine C (2014). "Management of the 2012 Legionella crisis in Quebec City: need for a better communication between resources and knowledge transfer". Front Microbiol. 5: 182. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00182. PMC 4017129. PMID 24829561.
- ↑ McCormick D, Thorn S, Milne D, Evans C, Stevenson J, Llano M; et al. (2012). "Public health response to an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Edinburgh, United Kingdom, June 2012". Euro Surveill. 17 (28). doi:10.2807/ese.17.28.20216-en. PMID 22835439.
- ↑ Russo A, Gouveia CM, Soares PMM, Cardoso RM, Mendes MT, Trigo RM (2018). "The unprecedented 2014 Legionnaires' disease outbreak in Portugal: atmospheric driving mechanisms". Int J Biometeorol. 62 (7): 1167–1179. doi:10.1007/s00484-018-1520-8. PMID 29572569.
- ↑ Simmering JE, Polgreen LA, Hornick DB, Sewell DK, Polgreen PM (2017). "Weather-Dependent Risk for Legionnaires' Disease, United States". Emerg Infect Dis. 23 (11): 1843–1851. doi:10.3201/eid2311.170137. PMC 5652433. PMID 29048279.
- ↑ Han XY (2021). "Effects of climate changes and road exposure on the rapidly rising legionellosis incidence rates in the United States". PLoS One. 16 (4): e0250364. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0250364. PMC 8061983 Check
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