Heart transplantation associated arrhythmias

Heart transplantation Microchapters
Home
Patient Information
Overview
Historical Perspective
Classification
Pathophysiology
Causes
Epidemiology and Demographics
Risk Factors
Screening
Complications and Prognosis
Diagnosis
Indications
Evaluation
Contraindications
Criteria for Cardiac Transplantation
Equitable Distribution of Donor Hearts to those Awaiting Transplantation and the Process of Being Listed for a Transplant
Treatment
Medical Therapy
Surgery
Follow-Up
Electrocardiogram and Pacing After Cardiac Transplantation
Heart transplantation associated arrhythmias On the Web
Most recent articles
Most cited articles
Review articles
CME Programs
Powerpoint slides
Images
American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Heart transplantation associated arrhythmias All Images X-rays Echo & Ultrasound CT Images MRI
Ongoing Trials at Clinical Trials.gov
US National Guidelines Clearinghouse
NICE Guidance
FDA on Heart transplantation associated arrhythmias
CDC onHeart transplantation associated arrhythmias
Heart transplantation associated arrhythmias in the news
Blogs on Heart transplantation associated arrhythmias
Directions to Hospitals Treating Heart transplantation
Risk calculators and risk factors for Heart transplantation associated arrhythmias

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

• Patients with end stage cardiac disease can be managed with heterotopic  heart transplantation, which is the most effective long term therapy, while  implantable left ventricular assisted devices have also shown desirable outcomes.
• The short term mortality in these patients has been decrease due to more refined surgical techniques, as well as the use of more advanced immunosuppressive regimen, but the morbidity in these patients has increased due to repeated transplant rejection episodes, and Cardiac allograft vasculopathy, which usually manifest as arrhythmia.

Historical Perspective

• Brink J et al (2009) reports about the first human-to-human Heart Transplant (HT) :
  • Performed by a team led by Dr Christiaan Barnard in 1967, at the Groote Schuur Hospital and the University of Cape Town.
  • His first patient was 53 years old Louis Washkansky with a history of smoking, diabetes and  severe coronary insufficiency.
  • Donor heart was from a young lady who had  succumbed due to a lethal brain injury from a road traffic accident.
  • Post operative course: after successful orthotopic HT procedure Washkansky continued to  recover progressively until he suddenly developed infiltrates in the lungs. Since the cause of infiltrates was not clear he was initially treated for rejection with immunosuppressive therapy, which aggravated his bilateral pneumonia and he died on 18th postoperative day due to severe pneumonia and septicemia.
• Subsequent orthotopic HTs were reported by Brink J et al. (2009) as:
  • Barnard performed  10 more orthotopic HTs between 1967 to 1974, two of whom survived for 13 and 23 years respectively.
  • Dr Shumway from Stanford University and Dr. Juro Wada at Sapporo Medical University in Japan performed the first HT in the United States (US) and Japan respectively, in 1968.
  • 166 transplants  were performed globally between 1968 to 1970, however due to complications such as severe graft rejection reaction and infection, the 2-year survival rate was reported to be only 11%.
• Heterotopic HTs:
  • Due to poor survival rate post orthotopic HT Barnard considered heterotopic (piggy-back)  HT as a possibility to improve patient survival rate in 1974.
  • Heterotopic heart transplantation allows the recipient's heart to maintain circulation while rejection reaction is reversed with immunosuppressive therapy.
  • Advent of cyclosporine in 1980 was a much needed addition to post-operative management which contributed greatly to reduce incidence of severe life-threatening rejection episodes, hence Barnard’s group was able to resume orthotopic heart transplantation(OHT).

Techniques of HT

• John, R et al.  guide about techniques of HT:
  • Preoperative preparation:
    • Successful HT requires very close coordination between the donor and recipient surgical team.
    • Preoperative assessment includes: following considerations are critical to success of HT
      • Assessing compatibility of the donor heart.
      • Surgical team ensures optimum health of the recipient by ruling out any ongoing coagulation defect or infection.
  • Intra-operative phase is planned to limit donor ischemic time to less than six hours; preferably less than four hours in case of old donor or increased pulmonary vascular resistance.
• John, R et al. report  Bicaval and Biatrial anastomosis are two most common techniques of HT
  • Biatrial method:
    • Part of the recipient right and left atria is retained which is sutured to respective atrial of the donor.
    • This allows surgeons to preserve the recipient's sinus node, however due to disruption of  blood supply and denervation this is rendered non-functional.
    • There is a complete conduction block across the suture line in the right atrium.
  • Bicaval method:
    • Anastomosis is made at the level of two vena cavae, the great vessels and the left atrial cuff around the pulmonary vein.
    • There is less sinus nodal injury, tricuspid regurgitation, and atrial dilatation making it the preferred technique of the current times.
    • Potential advantages: associated with reduced hospital stay,decreased incidence of atrial dysrhythmias and conduction disturbances, less mitral and tricuspid incompetence secondary to atrioventricular (AV)  geometry distortion and right ventricular failure.
    • Potential disadvantages: increased ischemic time and the possibility of narrowing of the caval anastomosis.  

Classification

Types of Arrhythmias			Occurrence	Common mechanism	Treatment
Tachyarrhythmias	Supra-ventricular tachy- arrthymia (SVT)	Atrial fibrillation	Common in early postoperative period Over all frequency 47.3% (Elkaryoni et al.)	1. Graft manipulation (primary graft failure)	1. Evaluate and manage the trigger 2. Persistent cases: Catheter ablation
				2. Inflammatory changes (pericardial inflammation)
				3. Autonomic hypersensitivity
				4. Ischemia
				5. Denervation
				6. Early rejection
				7. Inotrpes
		Atrial flutter	Common in immediate  postoperative period (>1 month) Over all frequency 7.6% (Elkaryoni et al.)	1. AR - 28% cases 2. Remodelling of atria (late onset ) 3. Atrial suture lines - conduction barriers 4. Recipient to donor atrial conduction 5. Increased risk with bi-atrial method 6. Increased risk with older donor age	1. Evaluate and manage the trigger 2. Persistent cases: Radiofrequency ablation
	Other SVTs	Focal atrial tachycardia		Formation of depolarization foci near the atrial scar that take control of the heart rhythm. Foci can be found in donor atrium or in the atrial remnant of recipient which passes into the donor.	Focal catheter ablation
		Atrial reenterant tachycardia & Nodal reenterant tachycardia		Requires a preexisting route in the donor that allows a macroreentrant.	Radiofrequency ablation (RFA)
		Atrial macro-reentrant tachycardia		site of origin is mostly in the upper right atrium, around the native and donor suture line	Radiofrequency ablation (RFA)
		Recipient-to-donor atrial conduction tachycardia		site of origin usually right atrial anastomosis.	Radiofrequency ablation (RFA)
	Ventricular tachycardias Over all frequency 7.6% (Elkaryoni et al.)	Non-sustained	Early post-transplat period	1.Acute rejection 2. Graft vasculopathy 3. Severe cardiac allograft vasculopathy (in symptomatic cases)	ICD placement (in symptomatic cases)
		Sustained	Early post-transplat period	1. Acute rejection (if presenting during immediate post operative period) 2. Allopathic vasculopathy 3. LV dysfunction	Prompt for coronary angiography and cardiac biopsy
		Ventricular fibrillation	1.1%	Transplant coronary artery disease
Bradyarrhytmia		Sick sinus syndrome (SSS)	0.5  % (Elkaryoni et al.)	1. Sympathetic denervation 2. Ischemic injury to the sinus node 3. Graft ischemia or rejection 4. Drug effects
		Sudden cardiac arrrest	3.7% (Elkaryoni et al.)	1. SSS 2. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy 3. Transplant coronary artery disease
		Heart Block	0.3% (Elkaryoni et al.)	1. Postoperative injury 2. Progressive conduction system disease associated with coronary artery disease 3. LV dysfunction 4. Chronic rejection 5. Injury from endomyocardial biopsies.

• Post heart transplant Arrhythmias can be divided into tachyarrhythmias (heart rate > 100/min)  and bradyarrhythmia (heart rate < 60 /min). Tachycardias are further classified based on place of origin, such as supraventricular arrhythmias originate between sinus node and the AV node, where as ventricular arrhythmias originate below the AV node at the ventricular level.
  • Tachyarrhythmias

• • Supraventricular tachyarrhythmias (SVT)
    • Are most common POA noticed after HT.
    • Overall AF is reported to be more common as compared to AFl (47.3% vs 7.6%).
    • However older studies report AF (0.3 to 24%)  second after AFl (2.8 to 30%)
  • Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
    • EKG findings: irregularly irregular rhythm, absent P waves, ventricular rate of 100-180 beats/minute, variability in QRS complexes intervals, narrow QRS complexes. 
    • Mechanism:
      • Early postoperative period: associated with pericardial inflammation, graft manipulation, primary graft failure, allograft rejection (AR) (37.5%), and autonomic changes(such as due to denervation), ischemia, and inotropes.
      • Postoperative period (> 1 month): seen to be associated with allograft vasculopathy (in 21% cases), rejection (in 46% cases) or infection.
    • Occurrence:
      • In relation to technique of heart transplantation: meta-analysis reports pooled estimated incidence of AF:
        1. Biatrial technique: 18.7% (95%CI: 10.3%-31.5%)
        2. Bicaval technique: 11.1% (95%CI: 6.5%-18.4%)
      • Frequency in relation to timing of onset postoperative period:
        • POAF (</= 1 month): 6.2%
        • POAF (> 1 month): 4%
  • Atrial Flutter:
    • EKG findings: regular rhythm at the rate of 200 to 300 beat per minute, accompanied with flutter waves (saw-tooth pattern)
    • Mechanism:
      • AR - 28% cases
      • Remodelling of atria (late onset )
      • Atrial suture lines - conduction barriers
      • Recipient to donor atrial conduction
      • Increased risk with bi-atrial method
      • Increased risk with older donor age
• Occurrence:
  • POAFl (</= 1 month): 2.9%
  • POAFl (> 1 month): 7.4%

Other supraventricular Tachycardia : reported in patients with stable OHT these SVTs are diagnosed on electrophysiological testing.

• Focal atrial tachycardia:
  • Mechanism:  
    • Formation of depolarization foci near the atrial scar that takes control of the heart rhythm.
    • Foci can be found in donor atrium or in the atrial remnant of the recipient which passes into the donor.
    • Areas of slow electrical conduction are formed by scars and fibrosis, that leads to the formation of macro reentrant and development of focal atrial tachycardia
• Atrial reentrant tachycardia: Rare in transplanted patients
  • Mechanism:
    • Require a pre-existing route in the donor that allows a macro reentrant.
    • They are uncommon in transplanted patients.
• AV and AV nodal reentrant tachycardia: originates from transplanted heart due to changes in autonomic tone affecting the substrate are likely to be the mechanism of tachycardias in the recipient patient. This has been reported even if the donor never experienced any tachycardias.
• Atrial macro-reentrant tachycardia: site of origin is mostly in the upper right atrium, around the native and donor suture line. Managed successfully with ablation.  

Recipient-to-donor atrial conduction tachycardia: site of origin usually right atrial anastomosis

Epidemiology and Demographics

• • The International Society for Health and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT) reports over 5,500 annual transplants (all ages) performed globally, most in  North America. Increased number of deaths due to drug overdose in the US, an improvement in reporting of transplants globally and increasing use of “higher-risk” donor hearts are thought to be the main reasons for annual increase in number of reported HTs. Figure 1: Number of heart transplants (adult and pediatric) by year (transplants: 1988−2017) and geographic region.
  • Age & gender breakdown: 36th report of ISHLT estimates that:
    • Median recipient age for HT is 55 years.
    • Donor median range falls in the range of 28 years in North America to 45 years in Europe.
    • Gender breakdown amongst donor and recipient groups is reported to have  67.9% and 74.4% male population respectively.
  • HT outcome:
    • Survival rate amongst 1-year survivors is reported to be 14.8 years, which is relatively higher for patients with primary diagnosis of  congenital heart disease followed by non-ischemic and ischemic cardiomyopathy, as worse for patients with diagnosis of re-transplants.
    • Higher recipients and donor age are also associated with early post operative mortality.
    • Female gender is associated with significantly higher post-transplant survival than men (median survival 12.2 years in women, 11.4 years in men).
    • Stehlik et al. report that most of the patients during the immediate postoperative period patients undergoing HT do not require hospitalisation. The functional status of 80% of the HT recipients is ≥80% on the Karnofsky Score (range, 10%–100%). Many HT recipients return to work. Figure 2 : 5 Kaplan-Meier survival by era (adult heart transplants: January 1982−June 2017). NA, not available.

• • Elkaryoni et al analysed Nationwide Inpatient Sample 2002-2014 to identify OHT recipients by using ICD-9 codes. Out of the 175,845 HT, 21,613 patients (12.3%)  recipients presented with arrhythmia
    • Mean age was 60.8 ± 13.8 years, 73.1% were males and 63.8% were white.
    • Overall most common POA reported was Atrial fibrillation (AF) (47.3%) followed by atrial flutter (AFl) (7.6%), ventricular tachycardia (4.7%), Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (1.6%), sudden cardiac arrest (3.7%) and ventricular fibrillation (1.1%), sick sinus syndrome (0.5%), complete heart block (0.3%) and other dysrhythmias (33.2%). Frequencies reported are not associated with timing of onset.
    • Congestive heart failure (CHF) and Orthotopic HT complications  such as cellular rejection and cardiac allograft vasculopathy were the most predictors for POA (OR 2.33, OR 1.65 res[ectively).

• The international Society of Heart and Lung Transplant (ISHLT) reports over 5,500 annual transplant Heart transplant performed globally, most in North America. Increased number of deaths due to drug overdose in the US, an improvement in reporting of transplant globally and increasing use of "high-risk" donor hearts are thought to be the main reasons for annual increase in number of reported heart transplants.8

Mechanism and Risk Factors

• Various risk factors are involved in both Bradyarrhythmias and Tachtarrhythmias. some of them are-

Denervation and reinnervation :

• Average resting heart rate in HT patients increases due to  denervation of the parasympathetic system of the donor heart. Denervation of the sympathetic system causes decrease and delay in exercise or stress-induced augmentation of SA node automaticity, resulting in a decreased maximum heart rate with exercise.
• Reinnervation (of both parasympathetic and sympathetic systems) process is incomplete, nonuniform and can be variable among patients, and heterogenous within the same patient.
• A study led by Uberfuhr  in Germany found that 22 out of 38 (58%) patients with orthotopic heart transplantation had some degree of sympathetic reinnervation.

Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy:

• Common occurrence in late postoperative heart transplantation period which can lead to ischemia. This is turn leads to ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death.
• Trigger: heterogeneous factors (alloimmune, autoimmune and non-immune mediated responses) leading to inflammation, endothelial injury.

Biopsy findings:  

• Diffuse, pan-arterial involvement (unlike atherosclerosis - patchy distribution)
• Affects mid to distal portion of the coronary artery
• Donor-transmitted lesions are detectable early after transplant and tend to be focal and proximal
• Late lesions can occur with both CAV and atherosclerotic disease

Inflammation and ischemic injury:

• Triggers: hypoxemia hypercarbia, endogenous or exogenous catecholamines, acid-base imbalances, and drug effects, as well as mechanical factors such as instrumentation
• Timing: inflammation peaks around day 2-3

Graft rejection:

• Prevalence: approximately 20-30% of patients are reported to have experienced graft rejection during first year after HT.
• Routine surveillance of transplant coronary artery disease is required, typically with annual coronary angiograms. Ischemia from graft vasculopathy should be considered a cause of arrhythmias, particularly 6 months or more after transplantation
• Biopsy is of diagnostic value. Presence of inflammatory infiltrates in the transplanted tissue signifies graft rejection.
• Empiric augmentation of immunosuppressant therapy can be considered.
• Prognosis:
  • Cardiac fibrosis leading to compromised diastolic function can occur due to recurrent moderate to severe acute rejections.
    • Risk factor for development of AFl, hence evaluation for graft rejection should be conducted to rule out evidence of graft rejection as a trigger  
  • Poor prognosis in long term

Sinus node dysfunction:

• Trigger: injuries during the surgical procedure such as trauma, nodal ischemia due to nodal artery injury or prolonged ischemia
• Decrease incidence with bicaval surgical technique

Biopsies as a diagnostic intervention to rule out acute rejection of the graft:

• Endo-Myocardial Biopsy (EMB) utilised to evaluate cardiac AR or dilated and restrictive cardiomyopathies can lead to arrhythmias.

Infections:

• Recipient is at increased risk of acquiring infection due to use of immunosuppressive therapy
• Immunosuppressive therapy and timings of infection are associated with cause of infection
• “Estimations indicate that about 1.5% of cardiac transplant patients are infected with infectious endocarditis (IE), mostly by Staphylococcus aureus and Aspergillus fumigatus. Risk factors include the use of central catheters in the perioperative period and frequent endomyocardial biopsies”
• The Infective endocarditis can lead to post HT arrhythmia.

Drugs:

• As the average effect of amiodarone is prolonged. If early  sinus node dysfunction occurs in a transplanted heart , the effect of amiodarone may further compromise the electrical conduction of the transplanted heart.

Surgical technique

• Preliminary studies show that bicaval technique has less risk of developing POA as compared to biatrial method. Needs further research to establish as an association.

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

• The majority of patients with [disease name] remain asymptomatic for [duration/years].
• Early clinical features include [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3].
• If left untreated, [#%] of patients with [disease name] may progress to develop [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3].
• Common complications of [disease name] include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].
• Prognosis is generally [excellent/good/poor], and the [1/5/10­year mortality/survival rate] of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#%].

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

• The diagnosis of [disease name] is made when at least [number] of the following [number] diagnostic criteria are met:

• [criterion 1]
• [criterion 2]
• [criterion 3]
• [criterion 4]

Symptoms

• [Disease name] is usually asymptomatic.
• Symptoms of [disease name] may include the following:

• [symptom 1]
• [symptom 2]
• [symptom 3]
• [symptom 4]
• [symptom 5]
• [symptom 6]

Physical Examination

• Patients with [disease name] usually appear [general appearance].
• Physical examination may be remarkable for:

• [finding 1]
• [finding 2]
• [finding 3]
• [finding 4]
• [finding 5]
• [finding 6]

Laboratory Findings

• There are no specific laboratory findings associated with [disease name].

• A [positive/negative] [test name] is diagnostic of [disease name].
• An [elevated/reduced] concentration of [serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other] [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name].
• Other laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of [disease name] include [abnormal test 1], [abnormal test 2], and [abnormal test 3].

Imaging Findings

• There are no [imaging study] findings associated with [disease name].

• [Imaging study 1] is the imaging modality of choice for [disease name].
• On [imaging study 1], [disease name] is characterized by [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
• [Imaging study 2] may demonstrate [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Other Diagnostic Studies

• [Disease name] may also be diagnosed using [diagnostic study name].
• Findings on [diagnostic study name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Treatment

Medical Therapy

• There is no treatment for [disease name]; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.

• The mainstay of therapy for [disease name] is [medical therapy 1] and [medical therapy 2].
• [Medical therapy 1] acts by [mechanism of action 1].
• Response to [medical therapy 1] can be monitored with [test/physical finding/imaging] every [frequency/duration].

Surgery

• Surgery is the mainstay of therapy for [disease name].
• [Surgical procedure] in conjunction with [chemotherapy/radiation] is the most common approach to the treatment of [disease name].
• [Surgical procedure] can only be performed for patients with [disease stage] [disease name].

Prevention

• There are no primary preventive measures available for [disease name].

• Effective measures for the primary prevention of [disease name] include [measure1], [measure2], and [measure3].

• Once diagnosed and successfully treated, patients with [disease name] are followed-up every [duration]. Follow-up testing includes [test 1], [test 2], and [test 3].