Industrial and organizational psychology

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Template:Tocright Robert G. Badgett, M.D.[1]

Industrial and organizational psychology is "the branch of applied psychology concerned with the application of psychologic principles and methods to industrial problems including selection and training of workers, working conditions, etc."[1]

Organizational culture and climate

Organizational culture is "beliefs and values shared by all members of the organization. These shared values, which are subject to change, are reflected in the day to day management of the organization"[2]. Components of culture have been described based on anthropology[3][4][5].

Organizational culture affects organizational effectiveness[6] .

Organizational states

Flourishing

Flourishing involves a positive state of psychological or social well-being and positive functioning (not necessarily learning) and addresses life in general rather than just work.[7] However, the concept is variably conceptualized thus making it difficult to study.[8]

Important contributors to flourishing focus on relationships with others at work and are[9]:

  • Giving to others (due to impact on meaningfulness)
  • Task assistance receipt (due to impact on job satisfaction)
  • Friendship (due to positive emotions at work)
  • Personal growth (due to impact on life satisfaction).

A short scale to measure flourishing has been proposed.[10]

Thriving

Thriving has two components according to factor analysis[11]:

  • Vitality. In this analysis, vitality is very similar to Schaufeli's Vigor subscale of the EWES-9 Engagement scale (see 'Engagement' below)
  • Sense of learning or improvement

A separate body of research has emerged more recently that gives a broader definition to thriving, but does not cite the above research that has used factor analysis to identify core features[12].

Thriving is negatively correlated with burnout[13][14]; however, this benefit may be confined to employees with a high openness to experience[14]

Thriving is fostered among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional by a "employee involvement climate", defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization"[15].

Engagement

Engagement has three dimensions according to factor analysis[16]:

  • Vigor (physical engagement)
  • Dedication (effective engagement)
  • Absorption (cognitive engagement)

Engagement can be measured by several validated scales[17][18].

Engagement depends on both organizational factors and personnel personality[19]. Inadequate job resources are a cause as found in the job demands-resources model of burnout[20].

Engagement is association with organizational success[21][22], including in health care[23].

Satisfaction

Satisfaction with work is a "pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences”[24].

Burnout

Main article: Burnout (psychology)

Antecedents

Regarding engagement and job satisfaction, meaningfulness of work strongly correlates[25]


The key antecedent of thriving is proposed to be self-determination, which includes autonomy, competence, and relatedness.[26] This emphasis links thriving to self-determination theory of Deci.[27] Studies have validated autonomy as an antecedent of thriving[28].

How to foster thriving has been reviewed[29][30][31] and includes:

  • Providing decision-making discretion
  • Sharing Information. Using transparency and open book management
  • Minimize incivility at work
  • Provide performance feedback
  • Promote diversity
  • Mastery of tasks. In 1908, the Yerkes-Dodson law[32], and later the concept of 'flow' by Csikszentmihalyi[33], both propose that engagement is strongest when a task is intermediate in difficulty.

Characteristics of individuals

The "Big Five personality traits" are[34][35][36]:

  • Openness to experience
  • Conscientiousness
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Neuroticism

Of these, conscientiousness[37], openness to experience[37][14] and extroversion[37], may affect job performance. The effect may be complicated as open to experience may be positively related to individual and organizational proactivity but negatively related to team and organizational proficiency[36].

Based on a study of players in the National Basketball Association, narcissism reduces team performance[38] .

Openness to experience

Openness to experience affects job performance[37][14].

=Personality traits

According to a meta-analysis, " the strongest predictor of engagement (31.10% of the explained variance; ρ = .62), followed by proactive personality (19.60%; ρ = .49), conscientiousness (14.10%; ρ = .39), and extraversion (12.10%; ρ = .40), whereas neuroticism, negative affectivity, agreeableness, and openness to experience were the least important"[39].

Learning and performance goal orientations

Three goal orientations have been proposed[40]:

  • Learning goal orientation
  • Performance‐prove orientation
  • Performance‐avoid orientation
Regulatory focus

Two regulatory focuses are[41][15]:

  • Promotion focus is associated with "growth and developmental needs and involves striving for ideals, aspirations, and rewards through accomplishment"
  • Prevention focus is associated with "needs for security and safety"
Calling

Calling is defined as[42]:

"A calling is a transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role in a manner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation."

Calling is:

  • Positively association with engagement[43] and well-being[44].
  • Negatively associated with burnout[45].

Characteristics of a job

Empowerment

Perception of empowerment by employees has four dimensions and can be measured with Spreitzer's Measuring Empowerment survey which measures[46]:

  • Meaningfulness or purpose
  • Competence or efficacy
  • Self-determination
    • I am able to make suggestions to improve the work of my team / department.
    • I am involved in deciding on changes introduced that affect my work area / team / department
  • Impact

Other surveys include:

  • AHRQ/SOPS[47]
    • We are encouraged to come up with ideas for more efficient ways to do our work
    • We are involved in making decisions about changes to our work processes
    • We are given opportunities to try out solutions to workflow problems
  • U.K. National Health Survey[48]:
    • I am able to make suggestions to improve the work of my team / department[46].
    • I am involved in deciding on changes introduced that affect my work area / team / department[46].
    • I am able to make improvements happen in my area of work.

Empowerment affects thriving[49].

Moral distress

Moral distress, as operationalized in research studies, is the report by healthcare personnel of participating in the provision of healthcare that the healthcare personnel perceives as inappropriate due to pressure from other health care professionals or administrators of families that the health care professional perceives as inappropriate due to being[50][51]:

  • Unnecessary or futile due to family wishes[52]
  • Suboptimal or insufficient. For example due to lack of funding, coordination, or continuity of care[53].
  • Deceptive. For example, not obtaining consent, not discussing end-of-life care, giving false hope, or not disclosing intravenous medications[53].

Although the use of ‘distress’ in the label suggests a negative emotional state, it’s definition inferred by measurement scales developed and used in research is that moral distress is not a state but rather is the report of participation in events that a reasonable person would interpret as distressing.

Moral distress may also be called moral injury.

Moral distress may be more common in nurses and pharmacists than physicians[54][55][56][52][57][58]. The American Association of Critical-Care Nurses has created a position statement about moral distress, "The 4 A’s to Rise Above Moral Distress."[59]

Scales have been developed to measure moral distress[50][53]

For underlying causes, moral distress negatively correlates with perception of empowerment by healthcare personnel[60].

Moral distress has been studied for correlation with states of workforce wellbeing:

  • Not correlated with engagement[61]
  • Negatively correlated with job satisfaction[54]
  • Positively correlated with burnout[54][55][56]; however, this has not been found in all studies[61][62]. In a separate study, moral distress correlated with the depersonalization component of burnout and just missed correlation with emotional exhaustion[63].

Theory and models of antecedents, indicators, and outcomes

Yerkes-Dodson Law suggestions that the relationship between performance and arousal is bell-shaped so that performance may decrease with excessive arousal. This is similar to work by Csikszentmihaly[64].

The concept of "competence frustration" (versus "flow") suggests a similar bell-shaped relationship between task difficulty and engagement[65]

Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory was proposed in the early 1980s.[66] In this theory, autonomy, mastery, and purpose have been validated as components[67][68].

Culture and Climate

Employee involvement climate, defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization" is associated with thriving among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional[15].

The role of work climate has been examined in studies based on complexity science[69][70], in order to predict why quality improvement projects succeed[71][72][73] and fail[74].

However, attributes of culture study may not be well based on theory and linked to the above settings.[75]

A reciprocal, beneficial relationship has been proposed between a positive work climate and mission goals[76]. This may be similar the Matthew effect[77].

Interventions to promote positive organizational psychology

Available studies have been reviewed.[78] Studies using appreciative inquiry have been done.[79][80]

Public reporting has been used to try to improve organizational culture.[81][82] Recommendations for how to report have been proposed.[83][84]

Switching to a flatter organizational structure may help[85].

Leadership

Main article: Leadership

Best practices

In medicine, recommendations for high-performance work systems are available and include[86][87]:

  • Engaging staff
  • Acquiring and developing talent
  • Empowering the frontline
  • Aligning leaders
  • Employee and Organizational outcomes

Surveys to solicit employee feedback

Serial surveying of employee opinion may be effective[88][89]. However, action in response to feedback is needed[90]. Thus, selective action may cause feedback to create a Matthew effect as leaders who are already successful may be disposed to act on the feedback[91].

Appreciative inquiry

Appreciative inquiry was developed in 1987 by Cooperrider and Srivastva[92]

Positive deviance

A positive deviance approach has been recommended to identify and disseminate best organizational practices[93][94] This approach includes[93]:

  • "Develop case definitions"
  • "Identify four to six people who have achieved an unexpected good outcome despite high risk"
  • "Interview and observe these people to discover uncommon behaviours or enabling factors that could explain the good outcome"
  • "Analyse the findings to confirm that the behaviours are uncommon and accessible to those who need to adopt them"
  • "Design behaviour change activities to encourage community adoption of the new behaviours"
  • "Monitor implementation and evaluate the results"

Reports of successful use have been published[95][96].

Ideally, positive deviants should be identified by blinded comparison to control groups[94], yet this is infrequently done[97] and instead deviants are informally identified by reputation[87][98].

Various statistical approaches are used to identify the true deviants[99][100] and not all QI measures may be appropriate[101].

Organizational decision making and conflict resolution

Organizational decision making is "the process by which decisions are made in an institution or other organization". [102]

Consensus

Group members may overestimate the degree of consensus[103]. This may be due to difficulty in inferring the opinion of a teammember.

On the other hand, in a non-randomized study that did not account for baseline conflicts, voting was associated with dissatisfaction[104]. It may be likely that these teams chose to vote because of diversity of perspectives whereas teams that choose consensus had more baseline homogeneity. In addition, post-decision voice was not clearly used.

After voting on organizational procedures, postdecisional voice by the minority group can reduce negative impact on perceptions of fairness and task commitment by employees in the voting minority. [105] In the study by Hunton, postdecisional voice was solicited by asking voters "their thoughts and feelings" about the options debated. Participants were also told that their postdecisional voice was "noninstrumental" and would not change the choice[105].

Delphi technique

A Delphi technique may be more effective.[106]

The Delphi technique involves[107]:

  1. Identifying a research problem
  2. Completing a literature search
  3. Developing a questionnaire of statements
  4. Conducting anonymous iterative mail or e-mail questionnaire rounds
  5. Providing individual and/or group feedback between rounds
  6. Summarizing the findings

A modified Delphi had been developed by the RAND Corporation.[108][109]

The technique can vary regarding anonymity of participants and the number of iterations or rounds.

The Delphi Technique can be conducted online either asynchronously via email[110] or synchronously using a software such as ExpertLens.[111][112]

Organizational change and innovation

Innovation

Two types:

  • Internal - adopting adapting
  • External - development

Measuring

Overall measurement of learning and improvement can be measured with[113]:

  • "I see myself continually improving"
  • "I continue to learn more as time goes by"

Internal innovation due to reciprocal learning

  • "I am frequently taught new things by other people I work with"[114]

External innovation due to environmental scanning.

  • "the number of memberships in professional associations"[115]

Organizations

See also

References

  1. ↑ Anonymous (2024), Industrial psychology (English). Medical Subject Headings. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  2. ↑ Anonymous (2024), Organizational culture (English). Medical Subject Headings. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  3. ↑ Schein, E. H. (1984). Coming to a new awareness of organizational culture. Sloan management review, 25(2), 3-16.
  4. ↑ Schein, E. H. (1983). The role of the founder in creating organizational culture. Organizational dynamics, 12(1), 13-28.
  5. ↑ Kluckhohn, F. R., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). Variations in value orientations. Oxford, England: Row, Peterson.
  6. ↑ Hartnell, CA (2019). "Supplemental Material for A Meta-Analytic Test of Organizational Culture's Association With Elements of an Organization's System and Its Relative Predictive Validity on Organizational Outcomes". Journal of Applied Psychology. doi:10.1037/apl0000380.supp. ISSN 0021-9010.
  7. ↑ Spreitzer, Gretchen, et al. "A socially embedded model of thriving at work." Organization science 16.5 (2005): 537-549. doi:10.1287/orsc.1050.0153
  8. ↑ Hone, Lucy Clare, et al. "Measuring flourishing: The impact of operational definitions on the prevalence of high levels of wellbeing." (2014): 62-90. doi:10.5502/ijw.v4i1.4
  9. ↑ Colbert, Amy E., Joyce E. Bono, and Radostina K. Purvanova. "Flourishing via workplace relationships: Moving beyond instrumental support." Academy of Management Journal 59.4 (2016): 1199-1223. doi:10.5465/amj.2014.0506
  10. ↑ Diener, Ed, et al. "New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings." Social Indicators Research 97.2 (2010): 143-156. doi:10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y
  11. ↑ Porath, C., Spreitzer, G., Gibson, C., & Garnett, F. G. (2012). Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(2), 250-275. doi:10.1002/job.756
  12. ↑ Feeney, B. C., & Collins, N. L. (2015). A new look at social support: A theoretical perspective on thriving through relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19(2), 113-147. doi:10.1177/1088868314544222
  13. ↑ Porath, Christine; Spreitzer, Gretchen; Gibson, Cristina; Garnett, Flannery G. (2011-05-19). "Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement". Journal of Organizational Behavior. Wiley-Blackwell. 33 (2): 250–275. doi:10.1002/job.756. ISSN 0894-3796.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C. "Transformational Leadership and Burnout: The Role of Thriving and Followers' Openness to Experience". J Occup Health Psychol. doi:10.1037/ocp0000051. PMID 27631555. Unknown parameter |= ignored (help)
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Wallace, J. C., Butts, M. M., Johnson, P. D., Stevens, F. G., & Smith, M. B. (2016). A Multilevel Model of Employee Innovation: Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Focus, Thriving, and Employee Involvement Climate. Journal of Management, 42(4), 982–1004. doi:10.1177/0149206313506462
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