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| {{drugbox
| | #REDIRECT [[Flecainide#Pharmacology]] |
| | IUPAC_name = N-(2-piperidylmethyl)-2,5-bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy)benzamide
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| | image = Flecainide.png
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| | width = 200px
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| | CAS_number = 54143-55-4
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| | ATC_prefix = C01
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| | ATC_suffix = BC04
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| | ATC_supplemental =
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| | PubChem = 3356
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| | DrugBank = APRD00129
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| | C=17 | H=20 | F=6 | N=2 | O=3
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| | molecular_weight = 414.343 g/mol
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| | bioavailability = 95%
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| | protein_bound = 40%
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| | metabolism = [[CYP2D6]] (limited)
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| | elimination_half-life = 20 hours (range 12-27 hours)
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| | pregnancy_category = C
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| | legal_status =
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| | routes_of_administration =
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| | excretion = Renal
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| }}
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| __NOTOC__
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| {{CMG}}
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| {{Editor Join}}
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| '''[[Flecainide (patient information)|For patient information, click here]]'''
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| ==Overview==
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| '''Flecainide acetate''' is a class Ic [[antiarrhythmic agent]] used to prevent and treat [[cardiac arrhythmia|tachyarrhythmia]]s (abnormal fast rhythms of the [[heart]]). It is used to treat a variety of cardiac arrhythmias including paroxysmal [[atrial fibrillation]] (episodic irregular heartbeat originating in the upper chamber of the [[heart]]), paroxysmal [[supraventricular tachycardia]] (episodic rapid but regular heartbeat originating in the atrium), and [[ventricular tachycardia]] (rapid rhythms of the lower chambers of the heart). Flecainide works by regulating the flow of [[sodium]] in the heart, thus slowing nerve impulses.
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| Flecainide was originally sold under the trade name '''Tambocor'''<sup>®</sup> (manufactured by 3M pharmaceuticals). Flecainide went off-patent on February 10<sup>th</sup>, 2004, and is now available under the trade names '''Almarytm'''<sup>®</sup>, '''Apocard'''<sup>®</sup>, '''Ecrinal'''<sup>®</sup>, and '''Flécaine'''<sup>®</sup>. It is also available [[generic drug|generically]].
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| ==Uses==
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| Flecainide is used in the treatment of many types of [[supraventricular tachycardia]]s, including AV nodal reciprocating tachycardia (AVNRT) and [[Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome]] (WPW). This is because of the action of flecainide on the [[electrical conduction system of the heart|His-Purkinje system]].
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| It also has limited use in the treatment of certain forms of [[ventricular tachycardia]] (VT). In particular, flecainide has been useful in the treatment of ventricular tachycardias that are not in the setting of an acute ischemic event. It has use in the treatment of right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) tachycardia<ref name = Gill>{{cite journal | author = Gill J, Mehta D, Ward D, Camm A | title = Efficacy of flecainide, sotalol, and verapamil in the treatment of right ventricular tachycardia in patients without overt cardiac abnormality. | journal = Br Heart J | volume = 68 | issue = 4 | pages = 392-7 | year = 1992 | id = PMID 1449923}}</ref> and in the suppression of arrhythmias in [[arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]] (ARVD).<ref name = Sakurada>{{cite journal | author = Sakurada H, Hiyoshi Y, Tejima T, Yanase O, Tokuyasu Y, Watanabe K, Motomiya T, Sugiura M, Hiraoka M | title = [Effects of oral flecainide treatment of refractory tachyarrhythmias] | journal = Kokyu To Junkan | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 471-6 | year = 1990 | id = PMID 2115193}}</ref> However, studies have shown an increased mortality when flecainide is used to suppress ventricular [[extrasystoles]] in the setting of acute myocardial infarction.<ref name = Echt>{{cite journal | author = Echt D, Liebson P, Mitchell L, Peters R, Obias-Manno D, Barker A, Arensberg D, Baker A, Friedman L, Greene H | title = Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide, or placebo. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 324 | issue = 12 | pages = 781-8 | year = 1991 | id = PMID 1900101}}</ref><ref name = Greenberg>{{cite journal | author = Greenberg H, Dwyer E, Hochman J, Steinberg J, Echt D, Peters R | title = Interaction of ischaemia and encainide/flecainide treatment: a proposed mechanism for the increased mortality in CAST I. | journal = Br Heart J | volume = 74 | issue = 6 | pages = 631-5 | year = 1995 | id = PMID 8541168}}</ref>
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| In individuals suspected of havings the [[Brugada syndrome]], the administration of flecainide may help reveal the [[electrocardiography|ECG]] findings that are characteristic of the disease process. This may help make the diagnosis of the disease in equivocal cases.<ref name = Gasparini>{{cite journal | author = Gasparini M, Priori S, Mantica M, Napolitano C, Galimberti P, Ceriotti C, Simonini S | title = Flecainide test in Brugada syndrome: a reproducible but risky tool. | journal = Pacing Clin Electrophysiol | volume = 26 | issue = 1 Pt 2 | pages = 338-41 | year = 2003 | id = PMID 12687841}}</ref>
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| Flecainide has been introduced into the treatment of arrhythmias in the [[pediatric]] population.
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| ===Dosing===
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| The dosing of flecainide is varied, with consideration made to the individual's other medications and comorbid conditions and how they may affect the metabolism of flecainide. Individuals with significant renal impairment may require measurement of the plasma level of flecainide to insure that the drug level remains within the therapeutic range (ie: that toxic levels do not occur). In addition, lower drug levels may be sought for the treatment of benign arrhythmias, to lower the chance of inducing a toxic effect of the drug. When used in the pediatric population, the dose of flecainide may be adjusted to the individual's [[body surface area]].
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| Given the variable half life of flecainide and the characteristic QT prolongation on [[electrocardiography|ECG]] elicited in flecainide toxicity, starting flecainide or changing the level of the drug is done under telemetry monitoring (preferably in a hospital telemetry unit) until a steady state plasma level has been achieved, typically three to five days after the dose has been increased.
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| For the treatment of [[supraventricular tachycardia]]s and paroxysmal [[atrial fibrillation]] or [[atrial flutter|flutter]] in individuals without significant structural heart disease, a starting dose of 50 mg twice a day may be appropriate. The dose may be increased (once a steady state level has been reached) if breakthrough dysrhythmias occur.
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| For the treatment of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias (ie: [[ventricular tachycardia]]), a starting dose of 100 mg twice a day may be appropriate. As with the treatment of benign arrhythmias, the dose of flecainide given for the treatment of life-threatening ventricular dysrhythmias should not be increased until a steady state has been achieved.
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| ==Mechanism of action==
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| Flecainide works by blocking the Nav1.5 sodium channel in the heart, causing prolongation of the [[cardiac action potential]].<ref name = Ramos>{{cite journal | author = Ramos E, O'leary M | title = State-dependent trapping of flecainide in the cardiac sodium channel. | journal = J Physiol | volume = 560 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 37-49 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15272045}}</ref> This thereby slows conduction of the electrical impulse within the heart. The greatest effect is on the [[electrical conduction system of the heart|His-Purkinje system]] and ventricular [[myocardium]]. The effect of flecainide on the ventricular myocardium causes decreased contractility of the muscle, which leads to a decrease in the ejection fraction.
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| The effect of flecainide on the sodium channels of the heart increases as the heart rate increases.<ref name = Wang>{{cite journal | author = Wang Z, Fermini B, Nattel S | title = Mechanism of flecainide's rate-dependent actions on action potential duration in canine atrial tissue. | journal = J Pharmacol Exp Ther | volume = 267 | issue = 2 | pages = 575-81 | year = 1993 | id = PMID 8246130}}</ref> This is known as use-dependence. This means that flecainide is potentially more useful to break a tachyarrhythmia (because it has increased effect during the fast heart rate) than to prevent a tachyarrhythmia from occurring (because of its lowered effectiveness during slower heart rates).
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| ==Metabolism and drug interactions==
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| Flecainide has high [[bioavailability]] after an oral dose,<ref name = Smith>{{cite journal | author = Smith G | title = Flecainide: a new class Ic antidysrhythmic. | journal = Drug Intell Clin Pharm | volume = 19 | issue = 10 | pages = 703-7 | year = 1985 | id = PMID 3902429}}</ref> meaning that most of the drug that is ingested will enter the systemic blood stream. Peak serum concentrations can be seen 1 to 6 hours after ingestion of an oral dose. While the plasma half life is about 20 hours, it is quite variable, and can range from 12 to 27 hours.<ref name = Padrini>{{cite journal | author = Padrini R, Piovan D, Busa M, al-Bunni M, Maiolino P, Ferrari M | title = Pharmacodynamic variability of flecainide assessed by QRS changes. | journal = Clin Pharmacol Ther | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 59-64 | year = 1993 | id = PMID 8422742}}</ref> During oral loading with flecainide, a steady state equilibrium is typically achieved in 3 to 5 days.
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| The majority of flecainide is eliminated by the [[kidney]]s, with the remainder metabolised by the [[CYP2D6|cytochrome P450 2D6 isoenzyme]] in the liver.<ref name = Haefeli>{{cite journal | author = Haefeli W, Bargetzi M, Follath F, Meyer U | title = Potent inhibition of cytochrome P450IID6 (debrisoquin 4-hydroxylase) by flecainide in vitro and in vivo. | journal = J Cardiovasc Pharmacol | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = 776-9 | year = 1990 | id = PMID 1692938}}</ref> Therefore, alterations in renal function or urine pH will greatly affect the elimination of flecainide, as more is eliminated by the hepatic route.
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| Because of the dual elimination routes of flecainide and its tendency to decrease [[ejection fraction|myocardial contractility]],<ref name = Santinelli>{{cite journal | author = Santinelli V, Arnese M, Oppo I, Matarazzi C, Maione S, Palma M, Giunta A | title = Effects of flecainide and propafenone on systolic performance in subjects with normal cardiac function. | journal = Chest | volume = 103 | issue = 4 | pages = 1068-73 | year = 1993 | id = PMID 8131440}}</ref> flecainide interacts with numerous pharmaceuticals and can potentiate the effects of other myocardial depressants and AV node blocking agents. In addition, flecainide can decrease the metabolism or elimination of many (but not all) agents that use the [[cytochrome P450 oxidase|cytochrome P450]] enzyme system.
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| A full list of drug interactions with flecainide can be obtained from the manufacturer. Some important drug interactions with flecainide include:
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| * [[Alcohol]] - may further depress normal heart function.
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| * [[Amiodarone]] - inhibits [[CYP2D6|cytochrome P450 2D6]] and may increase flecainide levels
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| * [[Cimetidine]] - increases flecainide levels by 30% and half-life by 10%
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| * [[Digoxin]] - may increase digoxin levels
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| * [[Paroxetine]] - increased effect of both drugs.
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| * [[Propafenone]] - increased effect of both drugs and increased risk of toxicity.
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| * [[Quinidine]] - inhibits [[CYP2D6|cytochrome P450 2D6]] and may increase flecainide levels
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| ==Serious adverse reactions==
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| Results of a medical study known as the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) demonstrated that patients with structural heart disease (such as a history of MI (heart attack), or left ventricular dysfunction) and also patients with ventricular arrhythmias, should not take this drug. In patients with these kinds of heart diseases, flecainide actually increases the chance of suffering a fatal arrhythmia.
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| The dose may need to be adjusted in certain clinical scenarios. As with all other [[antiarrhythmic agent]]s, there is a risk of proarrhythmia associated with the use of flecainide. This risk is probably increased when flecainide is co-administered with other class Ic antiarrhythmics, such as [[encainide]]. The risk of [[proarrhythmia]] may also be increased by [[hypokalemia]].<ref name = Ohki>{{cite journal | author = Ohki R, Takahashi M, Mizuno O, Fujikawa H, Mitsuhashi T, Katsuki T, Ikeda U, Shimada K | title = Torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia induced by mosapride and flecainide in the presence of hypokalemia. | journal = Pacing Clin Electrophysiol | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 119-21 | year = 2001 | id = PMID 11227957}}</ref> The risk of proarrhythmia is not necessarily associated with the length of time an individual is taking flecainide, and cases of late proarrhythmia have been reported.<ref name = Morganroth>{{cite journal | author = Morganroth J | title = Early and late proarrhythmia from antiarrhythmic drug therapy. | journal = Cardiovasc Drugs Ther | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 11-4 | year = 1992 | id = PMID 1533532}}</ref> Because of the role of both the liver and the kidneys in the elimination of flecainide, the dosing of flecainide may need to be adjusted in individuals who develop either liver failure or renal failure.
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| Because of the negative inotropic effects of flecainide,<ref name = Santinelli/> it should be used with caution in individuals with depressed [[ejection fraction]], and may worsen [[congestive heart failure]] in these individuals.It should be avoided in people with ischaemic heart disease and the elderly.
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| As with all class I [[antiarrhythmic agents]], Flecainide increases the capture thresholds of [[artificial pacemaker|pacemakers]].<ref name = Fornieles-Pérez>{{cite journal | author = Fornieles-Pérez H, Montoya-García M, Levine P, Sanz O | title = Documentation of acute rise in ventricular capture thresholds associated with flecainide acetate. | journal = Pacing Clin Electrophysiol | volume = 25 | issue = 5 | pages = 871-2 | year = 2002 | id = PMID 12049386}}</ref> Therefore, capture thresholds should be remeasured in individuals with pacemakers after the steady-state flecainide dose is changed.
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| ===Toxicity===
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| Due to the narrow therapeutic index of flecainide, physicians should be alert for signs of toxicity before life-threatening arrhythmias occur. While the toxic effects of flecainide are closely related to the plasma levels of the drug,<ref name = Winkelmann>{{cite journal | author = Winkelmann B, Leinberger H | title = Life-threatening flecainide toxicity. A pharmacodynamic approach. | journal = Ann Intern Med | volume = 106 | issue = 6 | pages = 807-14 | year = 1987 | id = PMID 3107447}}</ref> it is infeasible to check the plasma concentration in an individual on a regular basis.
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| Signs of flecainide toxicity include marked prolongation of the PR interval and widening of the QRS duration on the surface ECG. There may be signs and symptoms attributable to overt [[congestive heart failure|heart failure]] secondary to sudden decreased myocardial contractility.
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| ====Treatment====
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| Treatment of flecainide toxicity involves increasing the excretion of flecainide, blocking its effects in the heart, and (rarely) institution of cardiovascular support to avoid impending lethal arrhythmias. Modalities that have had success include administration of a beta-sympathomimetic agent,<ref name = Winkelmann/> and administration of a sodium load<ref name = Winkelmann/>(often in the form of [[hypertonic]] [[sodium bicarbonate]]). Placing the individual on cardiopulmonary bypass support many be necessary in order to temporarily obviate the need for a beating heart and to increase blood flow to the liver.<ref name = Corkeron>{{cite journal | author = Corkeron M, van Heerden P, Newman S, Dusci L | title = Extracorporeal circulatory support in near-fatal flecainide overdose. | journal = Anaesth Intensive Care | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 405-8 | year = 1999 | id = PMID 10470398}}</ref><ref name = Yasui>{{cite journal | author = Yasui R, Culclasure T, Kaufman D, Freed C | title = Flecainide overdose: is cardiopulmonary support the treatment? | journal = Ann Emerg Med | volume = 29 | issue = 5 | pages = 680-2 | year = 1997 | id = PMID 9140253}}</ref>
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| ==Long term effects==
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| In the long term, flecainide seems to be safe in patients with a healthy heart with no signs of [[left ventricular hypertrophy]], [[ischemic heart disease]] or [[heart failure]].
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| ==References==
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| <div class="references-small"><references/></div>
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://www.fpnotebook.com/CV190.htm Family Practice Notebook]
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| * [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202240.html Medline Plus]
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| * [http://www.affacts.org/Medications/flecainide.html Atrial Fibrillation Foundation]
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| * [http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic2/flecainide.htm RxList]
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| * [http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/health-info/docs/0600/0686.asp?index=4834&src=news Cleveland Clinic]
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| * [http://www.drugs.com/MTM/flecainide.html Drugs.com]
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| * [http://www.wholehealthmd.com/refshelf/drugs_view/1,1524,254,00.html WholeHealthMD.com]
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| * [http://www.healthsquare.com/newrx/tam1424.htm HealthSquare.com]
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| {{Antiarrhythmic agents}}
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