Sudden cardiac death causes: Difference between revisions

Jump to navigation Jump to search
VisualWikitext
No edit summary
 
(163 intermediate revisions by 12 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{Sudden cardiac death}}
{{Sudden cardiac death}}
{{CMG}}
{{CMG}} {{AE}} {{Sara.Zand}} {{EdzelCo}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
Cardiac arrest is synonymous with [[Clinical death]]. All disease processes leading to death have a period of (potentially) reversible cardiac arrest: the causes of arrest are, therefore, numerous. However, many of these conditions, rather than causing an arrest themselves, promote one of the "reversible causes" (see below), which then triggers the arrest (e.g. [[Choking]] leads to [[Hypoxia]] which in turn leads to an arrest). In some cases, the underlying mechanism cannot be overcome, leading to an unsuccessful resuscitation.
[[Sudden cardiac arrest]] ([[SCA]])  may be caused by underlying [[cardiac]] abnormality including [[coronary artery]] abnormality , [[hypertrophy]] of [[myocardium]], [[myocardial disease]], [[valvular heart disease]], [[congenital heart disease]], abnormality in [[conducting system]] and electrical instability. The type of [[cardiac disease]] that is associated with [[sudden cardiac death]] ([[SCD]]) depends on the [[age]] of the individual <ref name="pmid21131293">{{cite journal| author=Winkel BG, Holst AG, Theilade J, Kristensen IB, Thomsen JL, Ottesen GL | display-authors=etal| title=Nationwide study of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1-35 years. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2011 | volume= 32 | issue= 8 | pages= 983-90 | pmid=21131293 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehq428 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21131293  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24604905">{{cite journal| author=Risgaard B, Winkel BG, Jabbari R, Behr ER, Ingemann-Hansen O, Thomsen JL | display-authors=etal| title=Burden of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1 to 49 years: nationwide study in Denmark. | journal=Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 2 | pages= 205-11 | pmid=24604905 | doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.113.001421 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24604905  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid27332903">{{cite journal| author=Bagnall RD, Weintraub RG, Ingles J, Duflou J, Yeates L, Lam L | display-authors=etal| title=A Prospective Study of Sudden Cardiac Death among Children and Young Adults. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2016 | volume= 374 | issue= 25 | pages= 2441-52 | pmid=27332903 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1510687 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27332903  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid12472914">{{cite journal| author=Wisten A, Forsberg H, Krantz P, Messner T| title=Sudden cardiac death in 15-35-year olds in Sweden during 1992-99. | journal=J Intern Med | year= 2002 | volume= 252 | issue= 6 | pages= 529-36 | pmid=12472914 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.01038.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12472914  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid15364331">{{cite journal| author=Chugh SS, Jui J, Gunson K, Stecker EC, John BT, Thompson B | display-authors=etal| title=Current burden of sudden cardiac death: multiple source surveillance versus retrospective death certificate-based review in a large U.S. community. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2004 | volume= 44 | issue= 6 | pages= 1268-75 | pmid=15364331 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2004.06.029 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15364331  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24344190">{{cite journal| author=Winkel BG, Risgaard B, Sadjadieh G, Bundgaard H, Haunsø S, Tfelt-Hansen J| title=Sudden cardiac death in children (1-18 years): symptoms and causes of death in a nationwide setting. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2014 | volume= 35 | issue= 13 | pages= 868-75 | pmid=24344190 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/eht509 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24344190  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid18424446">{{cite journal| author=Byrne R, Constant O, Smyth Y, Callagy G, Nash P, Daly K | display-authors=etal| title=Multiple source surveillance incidence and aetiology of out-of-hospital sudden cardiac death in a rural population in the West of Ireland. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2008 | volume= 29 | issue= 11 | pages= 1418-23 | pmid=18424446 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehn155 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18424446  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid21903060">{{cite journal| author=Eckart RE, Shry EA, Burke AP, McNear JA, Appel DA, Castillo-Rojas LM | display-authors=etal| title=Sudden death in young adults: an autopsy-based series of a population undergoing active surveillance. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2011 | volume= 58 | issue= 12 | pages= 1254-61 | pmid=21903060 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.049 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21903060  }} </ref>.


Among adults, [[ischemic heart disease]] is the predominant cause of arrest.<ref name="pmid11320390">{{cite journal |author=Eisenberg MS, Mengert TJ |title=Cardiac resuscitation |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=344 |issue=17 |pages=1304–13 |year=2001 |month=April |pmid=11320390 |doi= |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=11320390&promo=ONFLNS19}}</ref> At [[autopsy]] 30% of victims show signs of recent [[myocardial infarction]]. Other cardiac conditions potentially leading to arrest include structural abnormalities, arrhythmias and cardiomyopathies. Non-cardiac causes include infections, overdoses, trauma and cancer, in addition to many others.
==Causes==
==Causes==
In a patient with sudden death, a thorough evaluation of potential causes is essential to exclude preventable causes of recurrence.
*[[Cardiac]] causes of [[sudden cardiac death]] ([[SCD]]) depend on the [[age]] of the individual <ref name="pmid21131293">{{cite journal| author=Winkel BG, Holst AG, Theilade J, Kristensen IB, Thomsen JL, Ottesen GL | display-authors=etal| title=Nationwide study of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1-35 years. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2011 | volume= 32 | issue= 8 | pages= 983-90 | pmid=21131293 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehq428 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21131293  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24604905">{{cite journal| author=Risgaard B, Winkel BG, Jabbari R, Behr ER, Ingemann-Hansen O, Thomsen JL | display-authors=etal| title=Burden of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1 to 49 years: nationwide study in Denmark. | journal=Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 2 | pages= 205-11 | pmid=24604905 | doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.113.001421 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24604905  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid27332903">{{cite journal| author=Bagnall RD, Weintraub RG, Ingles J, Duflou J, Yeates L, Lam L | display-authors=etal| title=A Prospective Study of Sudden Cardiac Death among Children and Young Adults. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2016 | volume= 374 | issue= 25 | pages= 2441-52 | pmid=27332903 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1510687 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27332903  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid12472914">{{cite journal| author=Wisten A, Forsberg H, Krantz P, Messner T| title=Sudden cardiac death in 15-35-year olds in Sweden during 1992-99. | journal=J Intern Med | year= 2002 | volume= 252 | issue= 6 | pages= 529-36 | pmid=12472914 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.01038.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12472914  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid15364331">{{cite journal| author=Chugh SS, Jui J, Gunson K, Stecker EC, John BT, Thompson B | display-authors=etal| title=Current burden of sudden cardiac death: multiple source surveillance versus retrospective death certificate-based review in a large U.S. community. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2004 | volume= 44 | issue= 6 | pages= 1268-75 | pmid=15364331 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2004.06.029 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15364331  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24344190">{{cite journal| author=Winkel BG, Risgaard B, Sadjadieh G, Bundgaard H, Haunsø S, Tfelt-Hansen J| title=Sudden cardiac death in children (1-18 years): symptoms and causes of death in a nationwide setting. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2014 | volume= 35 | issue= 13 | pages= 868-75 | pmid=24344190 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/eht509 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24344190  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid18424446">{{cite journal| author=Byrne R, Constant O, Smyth Y, Callagy G, Nash P, Daly K | display-authors=etal| title=Multiple source surveillance incidence and aetiology of out-of-hospital sudden cardiac death in a rural population in the West of Ireland. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2008 | volume= 29 | issue= 11 | pages= 1418-23 | pmid=18424446 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehn155 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18424446  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid21903060">{{cite journal| author=Eckart RE, Shry EA, Burke AP, McNear JA, Appel DA, Castillo-Rojas LM | display-authors=etal| title=Sudden death in young adults: an autopsy-based series of a population undergoing active surveillance. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2011 | volume= 58 | issue= 12 | pages= 1254-61 | pmid=21903060 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.049 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21903060  }} </ref>.
===Reversible Causes===
* In young people, [[cardiomyopathy]], [[myocarditis]], [[primary electric diseases]] and [[coronary abnormalities]] predominate <ref name="pmid21131293">{{cite journal| author=Winkel BG, Holst AG, Theilade J, Kristensen IB, Thomsen JL, Ottesen GL | display-authors=etal| title=Nationwide study of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1-35 years. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2011 | volume= 32 | issue= 8 | pages= 983-90 | pmid=21131293 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehq428 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21131293  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24604905">{{cite journal| author=Risgaard B, Winkel BG, Jabbari R, Behr ER, Ingemann-Hansen O, Thomsen JL | display-authors=etal| title=Burden of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1 to 49 years: nationwide study in Denmark. | journal=Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 2 | pages= 205-11 | pmid=24604905 | doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.113.001421 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24604905  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid27332903">{{cite journal| author=Bagnall RD, Weintraub RG, Ingles J, Duflou J, Yeates L, Lam L | display-authors=etal| title=A Prospective Study of Sudden Cardiac Death among Children and Young Adults. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2016 | volume= 374 | issue= 25 | pages= 2441-52 | pmid=27332903 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1510687 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27332903  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid12472914">{{cite journal| author=Wisten A, Forsberg H, Krantz P, Messner T| title=Sudden cardiac death in 15-35-year olds in Sweden during 1992-99. | journal=J Intern Med | year= 2002 | volume= 252 | issue= 6 | pages= 529-36 | pmid=12472914 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.01038.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12472914  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid15364331">{{cite journal| author=Chugh SS, Jui J, Gunson K, Stecker EC, John BT, Thompson B | display-authors=etal| title=Current burden of sudden cardiac death: multiple source surveillance versus retrospective death certificate-based review in a large U.S. community. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2004 | volume= 44 | issue= 6 | pages= 1268-75 | pmid=15364331 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2004.06.029 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15364331  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24344190">{{cite journal| author=Winkel BG, Risgaard B, Sadjadieh G, Bundgaard H, Haunsø S, Tfelt-Hansen J| title=Sudden cardiac death in children (1-18 years): symptoms and causes of death in a nationwide setting. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2014 | volume= 35 | issue= 13 | pages= 868-75 | pmid=24344190 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/eht509 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24344190 }} </ref> <ref name="pmid18424446">{{cite journal| author=Byrne R, Constant O, Smyth Y, Callagy G, Nash P, Daly K | display-authors=etal| title=Multiple source surveillance incidence and aetiology of out-of-hospital sudden cardiac death in a rural population in the West of Ireland. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2008 | volume= 29 | issue= 11 | pages= 1418-23 | pmid=18424446 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehn155 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18424446  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid21903060">{{cite journal| author=Eckart RE, Shry EA, Burke AP, McNear JA, Appel DA, Castillo-Rojas LM | display-authors=etal| title=Sudden death in young adults: an autopsy-based series of a population undergoing active surveillance. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2011 | volume= 58 | issue= 12 | pages= 1254-61 | pmid=21903060 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.049 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21903060  }} </ref>.
[[Cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] (CPR), including adjunctive measures such as defibrillation, intubation and drug administration, is the standard of care for initial treatment of cardiac arrest. However, most cardiac arrests occur for a reason, and unless that reason can be found and overcome, CPR is often ineffective, or if it does result in a return of spontaneous circulation, this is short lived. <ref name="RCUK2005">Resuscitation Council UK (2005). ''Resuscitation Guidelines 2005'' London: Resuscitation Council UK.</ref>. As highlighted above, a variety of disease processes can lead to a cardiac arrest, however they usually boil down to one or more of the "Hs and Ts" (see below).
*In people who are on their fourth decade of life, [[acute coronary syndrome]] ([[ACS]]) greatly predominates <ref name="pmid31023437">{{cite journal| author=Waldmann V, Karam N, Bougouin W, Sharifzadehgan A, Dumas F, Narayanan K | display-authors=etal| title=Burden of Coronary Artery Disease as a Cause of Sudden Cardiac Arrest in the Young. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2019 | volume= 73 | issue= 16 | pages= 2118-2120 | pmid=31023437 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2019.01.064 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31023437  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid31857140">{{cite journal| author=Waldmann V, Karam N, Rischard J, Bougouin W, Sharifzadehgan A, Dumas F | display-authors=etal| title=Low rates of immediate coronary angiography among young adults resuscitated from sudden cardiac arrest. | journal=Resuscitation | year= 2020 | volume= 147 | issue=  | pages= 34-42 | pmid=31857140 | doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2019.12.005 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31857140  }} </ref>.
 
* In elderly, [[structural diseases]] predominate <ref name="pmid24604905">{{cite journal| author=Risgaard B, Winkel BG, Jabbari R, Behr ER, Ingemann-Hansen O, Thomsen JL | display-authors=etal| title=Burden of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1 to 49 years: nationwide study in Denmark. | journal=Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 2 | pages= 205-11 | pmid=24604905 | doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.113.001421 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24604905  }} </ref>.
====H's====
* [[Hypovolemia|'''H'''ypovolemia]] - A lack of circulating [[body fluids]], principally [[blood]] volume. This is usually (though not exclusively) caused by some form of [[bleeding]], [[anaphylaxis]], or [[pregnancy]] with gravid uterus. [[Cardiac arrest#Peri-arrest period|Peri-arrest treatment]] includes giving [[Intravenous therapy|IV fluids]] and [[blood transfusions]], and controlling the source of any [[bleeding]] - by direct pressure for external bleeding, or emergency surgical techniques such as [[esophagogastroduodenoscopy]] (i.e. [[esophageal varices]]) and [[thoracotomy]] for internal bleeding.
* [[Hypoxia|'''H'''ypoxia]] - A lack of [[oxygen]] to the [[heart]], [[brain]] and other [[vital organ]]s. This can be identified through a careful assessment of breath sounds and tuble placement. Treatment may include providing oxygen, proper ventilation, and good [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]] technique.
* [[Hydrogen|'''H'''ydrogen]] ions ([[Acidosis]]) - An abnormal pH in the body as a result of shock, [[Diabetic ketoacidosis]], [[renal failure]], or [[tricyclic antidepressant]] overdose. This can be treated with proper ventilation, good [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]] technique, and buffers like [[sodium bicarbonate]].
* [[Hyperkalemia|'''H'''yperkalemia]] or [[Hypokalemia|'''H'''ypokalemia]] - The most life threatening [[electrolyte]] derangement is [[hyperkalemia]] (too much potassium). The classic presentation is the [[chronic renal failure]] patient who has missed a [[dialysis]] appointment and presents with [[weakness]], [[nausea]], and broad [[QRS complex]]es on the [[electrocardiogram]]. The most important initial therapy is the administration of [[calcium]], either with [[calcium gluconate]] or [[calcium chloride]]. Other therapies may include nebulized [[albuterol]], [[sodium bicarbonate]], [[glucose]], and [[insulin]]. The diagnosis of [[hypokalemia]] (not enough [[potassium]]) can be suspected when there is a history of [[diarrhoea]] or [[malnutrition]]. Loop [[diuretic]]s may also contribute. The [[electrocardiogram]] may show depressed T waves and prominent U waves. [[Hypokalemia]] is an important cause of acquired [[long QT syndrome]], and may predispose the patient to [[torsades de pointes]]. [[Digitalis]] use may increase the risk that [[hypokalemia]] will produce life threatening [[arrhythmia]]s.
* [[Hypothermia|'''H'''ypothermia]] - A low [[body temperature|core body temperature]], defined clinically as a [[temperature]] of less than 35 degrees Celsius. The patient is re-warmed either by using a [[heart-lung machine|cardiac bypass]] or by irrigation of the body cavities (such as thorax, peritoneum, bladder) with warm fluids; or warmed [[IV]] fluids. [[CPR]] only is given until the core body temperature reached 30 degrees Celsius, as [[defibrillation]] is ineffective at lower temperatures. Patients have been known to be successfully resuscitated after periods of hours in hypothermia and cardiac arrest, and this has given rise to the often-quoted medical truism, "You're not dead until you're warm and dead."
* [[Hypoglycemia|'''H'''ypoglycemia]] or [[Hyperglycemia|'''H'''yperglycemia]] - Low blood glucose from insulin reactions, [[diabetic ketoacidosis|DKA]], [[nonketotic hyperosmolar coma]]. This condition can be suspected when the patient is known to be a [[diabetic]]. The treatment may include fluids, [[potassium]], [[glucose]] (for hypoglycemia), and [[insulin]] (for hyperglycemia).
 
====T's====
* [[Tablets|'''T'''ablets]] or [[Toxins|'''T'''oxins]] - [[Tricyclic antidepressant]]s, [[phenothiazines]], [[beta blocker]]s, [[calcium channel blocker]]s, [[cocaine]], [[digoxin]], [[aspirin]], [[acetominophen]]. This may be evidenced by items found on or around the patient, the patient's medical history (i.e. drug abuse, medication) taken from family and friends, checking the [[medical records]] to make sure no interacting drugs were prescribed, or sending [[blood]] and [[urine]] samples to the [[toxicology]] lab for report. Treatment may include specific [[antidote]]s, fluids for volume expansion, vasopressors, [[sodium bicarbonate]] (for [[tricyclic antidepressant]]s), [[glucagon]] or [[calcium]] (for [[calcium channel blocker]]s), [[benzodiazepine]]s (for [[cocaine]]), or [[cardiopulmonary bypass]].
* [[Cardiac tamponade|Cardiac '''T'''amponade]] - Blood or other fluids building up in the [[pericardium]] can put pressure on the heart so that it is not able to beat. This condition can be recognized by the presence of a narrowing [[pulse pressure]], muffled [[heart sounds]], distended neck veins, [[electrical alternans]] on the [[electrocardiogram]], or [[echocardiogram]]. This is treated in an emergency by inserting a needle into the [[pericardium]] to drain the fluid ([[pericardiocentesis]]), or if the fluid is too thick then an emergency [[thoracotomy]] is performed to cut the pericardium and release the fluid.
* [[Tension pneumothorax|'''T'''ension pneumothorax]] - The build up of air into one of the [[pleural cavity|pleural cavities]], which causes a [[mediastinum|mediastinal]] shift. When this happens, the [[great vessels]] (particularly the [[superior vena cava]]) become kinked, which limits [[blood]] return to the [[heart]]. The condition can be recognized by severe air hunger, [[hypoxia]], jugular venous distension, hyperressonance to percussion on the effected side, and a tracheal shift away from the effected side. The tracheal shift often requires a chest [[x-ray]] to appreciate. This is relieved in an emergency by a needle [[thoracotomy]] (inserting a needle catheter) into the 2nd [[intercostal space]] at the mid-[[clavicle|clavicular]] line, which relieves the pressure in the [[pleural cavity]].
* [[Thrombosis|'''T'''hrombosis]] ([[Myocardial infarction]]) - If the patient can be successfully resuscitated, there is a chance that the [[myocardial infarction]] can be treated, either with [[thrombolysis|thrombolytic therapy]] or [[percutaneous coronary intervention]].
* [[Thrombosis|'''T'''hromboembolism]] ([[Pulmonary embolism]]) - Usually diagnosed at autopsy. Patients in [[asystole]] or [[pulseless electrical activity]] have a poor prognosis. If this can be detected early, the patient may receive [[dopamine]], [[heparin]], and [[thrombolytic]]s.
* [[Physical trauma|'''T'''rauma]] ([[Hypovolemia]]) - Reduced blood volume from acute injury or primary damage to the [[heart]] or [[great vessels]]. Cardiac arrest secondary to [[Physical trauma|trauma]], particularly [[blunt trauma]], has a very poor [[prognosis]].
 
== Complete Differential Diagnosis for Sudden Cardiac Death ==  
*Acute [[aortic insufficiency]]
*[[Acute coronary syndrome]]
*[[Aortic dissection]]
*[[Aortic stenosis]]
*[[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]]
*[[Brugada syndrome]]
*[[Cardiac tamponade]]
*[[Cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia]]
*[[Commotio cordis]]
*[[Complete heart block]]
*[[Congenital heart disease]]
*[[Congestive heart failure]]
*[[Coronary artery disease]]
*[[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome]]
*Kugel-Stoloff syndrome
* [[Long QT syndrome]], both [[congenital]] and acquired
*[[Mitral valve prolapse]]
*[[Myocarditis]]
*[[Naxos disease]]
*[[Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Papillary muscle rupture]]
*[[Prolonged Q-T Interval Syndrome]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Romano-Ward syndrome ]]
*[[Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
*[[Short QT syndrome]]
*[[Short QT syndrome type 1]]
*[[Short QT syndrome type 2]]
*[[Short QT syndrome type 3]]
*[[Short QT syndrome type 4]]
*[[Short QT syndrome type 5]]
*[[Sick sinus syndrome]]
*[[ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction]]
*[[Stokes-Adams Syndrome]]
*[[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]]
*[[Timothy syndrome ]]
*[[Uhl anomaly ]]
*[[Valvular Heart Disease]]
*[[Ventricular rupture]]
*[[Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome]] with rapid conduction
 
== Complete Differential Diagnosis for Sudden Non-Cardiac Death ==  
*3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1
*Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency
*Amniotic fluid syndrome
*Arterial dissections with lentiginosis
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Aneurysm]]
*[[Apoplexy]]
*[[Appendicitis]]
*[[Asphyxia]]
*Birth injury
*[[Bleeding]] excessive
*Childbirth hemorrhage
*Diabetic ketoacidosis - typically from undiagnosed diabetes
*[[Drug allergy]]
*[[Drug]] [[overdose]]
*[[Encephalitis]]
*[[Fetal death]]
*[[Flu]] mainly in the elderly, infants, infirm or chronically ill
*[[Food allergy]]
*[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]]
*Homicide
*Hyperbilirubinemia transient, familial, neonatal
*[[Hypercalcemia]]
*[[Hypercapnia]]
*[[Hyperkalemia]]
*[[Hypokalemia]]
*[[Hypoxia]]
*[[Injury]]
*[[Insect bite]]
*[[Intracranial hemmorhage]]
*[[Marfan syndrome ]]
*[[Meningitis]]
*[[Meningococcal disease]]
*Motor Vehicle accident
*Myasthenia Gravis
*[[Neurocysticercosis ]]
*Opioid [[overdose]]  
*[[Oxycontin]] [[overdose]]
*Pain killer [[overdose]]
*[[Pickwickian Syndrome]]
*[[Poisoning]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Retroperitoneal bleed]]
*[[Sepsis syndrome]]
*[[Shock]]
*[[Sleep apnea ]]
*[[Snake bite]]
*[[Status asthmaticus]]
*[[Stillbirth]]
*[[Stroke]]
*[[Subarachnoid hemorrhage]]
*[[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]]
*[[Suicide]]
*Sleeping pill [[overdose]]
*Toxic/metabolic disturbances
*Tranquilizer addiction
*[[Tension pneumothorax]]
* Toxic/metabolic disturbances
*[[Thyrotoxicosis]]
*[[Toxic shock syndrome]]
*[[Transfusion reaction]]
*[[Venom]]
 
===Causes of Sudden Death Including Sudden Cardiac Death by Organ System===
{|style="width:70%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" |
Amyloid cardiopathy,  
[[Congestive heart failure]],
Ventricular rupture,
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Ischemic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
[[Hypoxia]],
[[Coronary thrombosis]],
[[Coronary vasospasm]],
[[Coronary artery aneurysm]],
[[Prinzmetal's variant angina ]],
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Pericardial'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Cardiac tamponade]],
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Myocardial'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Asymmetric septal hypertrophy ]],
[[ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction]],
[[Dilated cardiomyopathy]],
[[Giant cell myocarditis ]],
[[Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]],
Kugel-Stoloff syndrome ,
[[Myocardial infarction]],
[[Myocarditis]],
[[Rupture of the papillary muscles]],
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Endocardial/Valvular'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
[[Mitral valve prolapse]],
[[Valvular Heart Disease]],
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Conduction/Arrhythmia'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
[[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy]],
[[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]],
[[Brugada syndrome]],
Complete atrioventricular block,
Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome,
[[Prolonged Q-T Interval Syndrome]],
[[Multifocal ventricular premature beats ]],
[[Naxos disease ]],
[[Romano-Ward syndrome ]],
[[Sick sinus syndrome]],
[[Short QT syndrome ]],
Sinus node disease,
[[Stokes-Adams Syndrome]],
Sudden Arrhythmia Death Syndrome,
[[Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome]],
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Vascular'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
Acute aortic insufficiency,
[[Acute coronary syndrome]],
[[Aortic dissection]],
[[Aortic stenosis]],
Aorto-ventricular tunnel,
[[Arteritis]],
[[Coronary artery disease]],
Coronary arteries - congenital malformation ,
[[Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm]],
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Congenital/Developmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Congenital heart disease]],
[[Congenital heart block ]],
Congenital Long QT syndrome,
[[Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy]],
[[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]],
[[Uhl anomaly ]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Snake bite]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[caspofungin acetate]], [[Clozapine]], [[Drug allergy]], [[drug overdose]], [[pramipexole]], [[prednisolone]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia]],
Diabetic ketoacidosis - typically from undiagnosed diabetes,
[[Thyrotoxicosis]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hypothermia]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Appendicitis]],
[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]],
[[Retroperitoneal bleed]],
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Brugada syndrome]],
3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1,
[[Familial dilated cardiomyopathy ]],
Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 1,
Hyperbilirubinemia transient, familial neonatal,
[[Marfan syndrome ]],
[[Timothy syndrome ]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Transfusion reaction]]
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Flu]] mainly in the elderly, infants, infirm or chronically ill,
[[Neurocysticercosis ]]
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Apoplexy]],
[[Encephalitis]],
[[Intracranial hemmorhage]],
[[Meningitis]],
[[Stroke]],
[[Subarachnoid hemorrhage]],
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1,
Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency ,
[[Food allergy]]
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
Amniotic fluid syndrome ,
Childbirth hemorrhage,
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
Atrial myxoma, familial
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Opthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
Opioid overdose  ,
Oxycontin [[overdose]],
Pain killer [[overdose]] ,
Sleeping pill [[overdose]]
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Hypercapnia]],
[[Pickwickian Syndrome]],
[[Pulmonary embolism]],
[[Tension pneumothorax]],
[[Status asthmaticus]]
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Hypercalcemia]],
[[Hypokalemia]],
[[Hyperkalemia]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Amyloidosis]],
[[Anaphylaxis]],
[[Myasthenia gravis]],
[[Sarcoidosis]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Commotio cordis]],
Homicide,
Motor Vehicle accident
 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Shock]],
[[Asphyxia]],
[[Insect bite]]
[[Sepsis syndrome]],
[[Shock]]
 
|-
|}
 
===Causes of Sudden Death Including Sudden Cardiac Death in Alphabetical Order===
{{MultiCol}}
*3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1
*Acute aortic insufficiency
*[[Acute coronary syndrome]]
*Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency
*Amniotic fluid syndrome
*Amyloid cardiopathy
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Aneurysm]]
*[[Aortic dissection]]
*[[Aortic stenosis]]
*Aorto-ventricular tunnel
*[[Apoplexy]]
*[[Appendicitis]]
*[[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]]
*Arterial dissections with lentiginosis
*[[Asphyxia]]
*[[Asymmetric septal hypertrophy ]]
*Atrial cardiomyopathy with heart block
*Atrial fibrillation, familial 1
*Atrial myxoma, familial
*[[Bleeding]] excessive
*[[Brugada syndrome]]
*[[Cardiac tamponade]]
*Cardiomyopathy dilated with conduction defect
*[[Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia]]
*Childbirth hemorrhage
*[[Commotio cordis]]
*[[Complete heart block]]
*[[Congenital heart block ]]
*[[Congenital heart disease]]
*[[Congestive heart failure]]
*Coronary arteries - congenital malformation
*[[Coronary artery disease]]
*Diabetic ketoacidosis - typically from undiagnosed diabetes
*[[Drug allergy]]
*[[Drug]] [[overdose]]
*[[Encephalitis]]
*[[Familial dilated cardiomyopathy ]]
*Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 1
*[[Flu]]mainly in the elderly, infants, infirm or chronically ill
*[[Food allergy]]
*[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]]
*[[Giant cell myocarditis ]]
*[[Heart attack]]
*[[Heart failure ]]
*Homicide
*Hyperbilirubinemia transient, familial, neonatal
*[[Hypercalcemia]]
*[[Hypercapnia]]
*[[Hyperkalemia]]
*[[Hypokalemia]]
*[[Hypoxia]]
*[[Injury]]
*[[Insect bite]]
*[[Intracranial hemmorhage]]
*[[Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome]]
*Kugel-Stoloff syndrome
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Marfan syndrome ]]
*[[Meningitis]]
*[[Meningococcal disease]]
*[[Mitral valve prolapse]]
*[[Multifocal ventricular premature beats ]]
*[[Myasthenia gravis]]
*[[Myocarditis]]
*[[Naxos disease ]]
*[[Neurocysticercosis ]]
*[[Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy]]
*Opioid [[overdose]] 
*[[Oxycontin]] overdose
*Pain killer overdose
*[[Papillary muscle rupture]]
*Paroxysmal ventricular fibrillation
*[[Pickwickian Syndrome]]
*[[Poisoning]]
*Polymorphic catecholergic ventricular tachycardia
*Prescribed medication addiction
*[[Prinzmetal's variant angina ]]
*[[Prolonged Q-T Interval Syndrome]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Retroperitoneal bleed]]
*Motor Vehicle accident
*[[Romano-Ward syndrome ]]
*[[Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
*[[Sepsis syndrome]]
*[[Shock]]
*[[Short QT syndrome ]]
*[[Sick sinus syndrome]]
*Sinus node disease
*[[Sleep apnea ]]
*Sleeping pill [[overdose]]
*[[Snake bite]]
*[[ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction]]
*[[Status asthmaticus]]
*[[Stillbirth]]
*[[Stokes-Adams Syndrome]]
*[[Stroke]]
*Subaortic stenosis - short stature syndrome
*[[Subarachnoid hemorrhage]]
*Sudden Arrhythmia Death Syndrome
*[[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]]
*[[Suicide]]
*[[Tension pneumothorax]]
*[[Thyrotoxicosis]]
*[[Timothy syndrome ]]
*[[Toxic shock syndrome]]
*Toxic/metabolic disturbances
*Tranquilizer addiction
*[[Transfusion reaction]]
*[[Uhl anomaly ]]
*[[Valvular Heart Disease]]
*[[Venom]]
*[[Ventricular rupture]]
*Ventricular tachycardia, catecholaminergic polymorphic, 1
*[[Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome]]
{{EndMultiCol}}


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
[[Category:Cardiology]]
[[Category:Cardiology]]
[[Category:Public health]]
[[Category:Public health]]
[[Category:Electrophysiology]]
[[Category:Electrophysiology]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
{{WH}}
{{WS}}

Latest revision as of 19:51, 19 July 2023

Sudden cardiac death Microchapters

Home

Patient Information

Sudden Cardiac versus Non-Cardiac Death

Overview

Historical Perspective

Classification

Pathophysiology

Causes

Definitions and Diagnosis

Epidemiology and Demographics

Risk Factors

Screening

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Electrocardiogram

X-ray

Echocardiography and Ultrasound

CT scan

MRI

Other Imaging Findings

Other Diagnostic Studies

Urgent Treatment

Post Arrest Care and Prevention

Ethical Issues

Sudden cardiac death causes On the Web

Most recent articles

Most cited articles

Review articles

CME Programs

Powerpoint slides

Images

American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Sudden cardiac death causes

All Images
X-rays
Echo & Ultrasound
CT Images
MRI

Ongoing Trials at Clinical Trials.gov

US National Guidelines Clearinghouse

NICE Guidance

FDA on Sudden cardiac death causes

CDC on Sudden cardiac death causes

Sudden cardiac death causes in the news

Blogs on Sudden cardiac death causes

Directions to Hospitals Treating Sudden cardiac death

Risk calculators and risk factors for Sudden cardiac death causes

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sara Zand, M.D.[2] Edzel Lorraine Co, DMD, MD[3]

Overview

Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) may be caused by underlying cardiac abnormality including coronary artery abnormality , hypertrophy of myocardium, myocardial disease, valvular heart disease, congenital heart disease, abnormality in conducting system and electrical instability. The type of cardiac disease that is associated with sudden cardiac death (SCD) depends on the age of the individual [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8].

Causes

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Winkel BG, Holst AG, Theilade J, Kristensen IB, Thomsen JL, Ottesen GL; et al. (2011). "Nationwide study of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1-35 years". Eur Heart J. 32 (8): 983–90. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehq428. PMID 21131293.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Risgaard B, Winkel BG, Jabbari R, Behr ER, Ingemann-Hansen O, Thomsen JL; et al. (2014). "Burden of sudden cardiac death in persons aged 1 to 49 years: nationwide study in Denmark". Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 7 (2): 205–11. doi:10.1161/CIRCEP.113.001421. PMID 24604905.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Bagnall RD, Weintraub RG, Ingles J, Duflou J, Yeates L, Lam L; et al. (2016). "A Prospective Study of Sudden Cardiac Death among Children and Young Adults". N Engl J Med. 374 (25): 2441–52. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1510687. PMID 27332903.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Wisten A, Forsberg H, Krantz P, Messner T (2002). "Sudden cardiac death in 15-35-year olds in Sweden during 1992-99". J Intern Med. 252 (6): 529–36. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.01038.x. PMID 12472914.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Chugh SS, Jui J, Gunson K, Stecker EC, John BT, Thompson B; et al. (2004). "Current burden of sudden cardiac death: multiple source surveillance versus retrospective death certificate-based review in a large U.S. community". J Am Coll Cardiol. 44 (6): 1268–75. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2004.06.029. PMID 15364331.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Winkel BG, Risgaard B, Sadjadieh G, Bundgaard H, Haunsø S, Tfelt-Hansen J (2014). "Sudden cardiac death in children (1-18 years): symptoms and causes of death in a nationwide setting". Eur Heart J. 35 (13): 868–75. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/eht509. PMID 24344190.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Byrne R, Constant O, Smyth Y, Callagy G, Nash P, Daly K; et al. (2008). "Multiple source surveillance incidence and aetiology of out-of-hospital sudden cardiac death in a rural population in the West of Ireland". Eur Heart J. 29 (11): 1418–23. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehn155. PMID 18424446.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Eckart RE, Shry EA, Burke AP, McNear JA, Appel DA, Castillo-Rojas LM; et al. (2011). "Sudden death in young adults: an autopsy-based series of a population undergoing active surveillance". J Am Coll Cardiol. 58 (12): 1254–61. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.049. PMID 21903060.
  9. ↑ Waldmann V, Karam N, Bougouin W, Sharifzadehgan A, Dumas F, Narayanan K; et al. (2019). "Burden of Coronary Artery Disease as a Cause of Sudden Cardiac Arrest in the Young". J Am Coll Cardiol. 73 (16): 2118–2120. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2019.01.064. PMID 31023437.
  10. ↑ Waldmann V, Karam N, Rischard J, Bougouin W, Sharifzadehgan A, Dumas F; et al. (2020). "Low rates of immediate coronary angiography among young adults resuscitated from sudden cardiac arrest". Resuscitation. 147: 34–42. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2019.12.005. PMID 31857140.
Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php?title=Sudden_cardiac_death_causes&oldid=1734746"