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==Overview==
==Overview==
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It is important to make a distinction between this term and the related term '''[[cardiac arrest]]''', which refers to cessation of cardiac pump function which may be reversible (i.e., may not be fatal).  The phrase '''Sudden Cardiac Death''' is a [[public health]] concept incorporating the features of ''natural'', ''rapid'', and ''unexpected''.  It does not specifically refer to the mechanism or cause of death.  Although the most frequent underlying cause of Sudden Cardiac Death is [[Coronary Artery Disease]], other categories of causes are listed below.
It is important to make a distinction between this term and the related term '''[[cardiac arrest]]''', which refers to cessation of cardiac pump function which may be reversible (i.e., may not be fatal).  The phrase '''Sudden Cardiac Death''' is a [[public health]] concept incorporating the features of ''natural'', ''rapid'', and ''unexpected''.  It does not specifically refer to the mechanism or cause of death.  Although the most frequent underlying cause of Sudden Cardiac Death is [[Coronary Artery Disease]], other categories of causes are listed below.


== Complete Differential Diagnosis for Sudden Cardiac Death ==
*Acute [[aortic insufficiency]]
*[[Acute coronary syndrome]]
*[[Aortic dissection]]
*[[Aortic stenosis]]
*[[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]]
*[[Brugada syndrome]]
*[[Cardiac tamponade]]
*[[Cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia]]
*[[Commotio cordis]]
*[[Complete heart block]]
*[[Congenital heart disease]]
*[[Congestive heart failure]]
*[[Coronary artery disease]]
*[[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome]]
*Kugel-Stoloff syndrome
* [[Long QT syndrome]], both [[congenital]] and acquired
*[[Mitral valve prolapse]]
*[[Myocarditis]]
*[[Naxos disease]]
*[[Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Papillary muscle rupture]]
*[[Prolonged Q-T Interval Syndrome]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Romano-Ward syndrome ]]
*[[Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
*[[Sick sinus syndrome]]
*[[ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction]]
*[[Stokes-Adams Syndrome]]
*[[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]]
*[[Timothy syndrome ]]
*[[Uhl anomaly ]]
*[[Valvular Heart Disease]]
*[[Ventricular rupture]]
*[[Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome]] with rapid conduction


== Complete Differential Diagnosis for Sudden Non-Cardiac Death ==
*3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1
*Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency
*Amniotic fluid syndrome
*Arterial dissections with lentiginosis
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Aneurysm]]
*[[Apoplexy]]
*[[Appendicitis]]
*[[Asphyxia]]
*Birth injury
*[[Bleeding]] excessive
*Childbirth hemorrhage
*Diabetic ketoacidosis - typically from undiagnosed diabetes
*[[Drug allergy]]
*[[Drug]] [[overdose]]
*[[Encephalitis]]
*[[Fetal death]]
*[[Flu]] mainly in the elderly, infants, infirm or chronically ill
*[[Food allergy]]
*[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]]
*Homicide
*Hyperbilirubinemia transient, familial, neonatal
*[[Hypercalcemia]]
*[[Hypercapnia]]
*[[Hyperkalemia]]
*[[Hypokalemia]]
*[[Hypoxia]]
*[[Injury]]
*[[Insect bite]]
*[[Intracranial hemmorhage]]
*[[Marfan syndrome ]]
*[[Meningitis]]
*[[Meningococcal disease]]
*Motor Vehicle accident
*Myasthenia Gravis
*[[Neurocysticercosis ]]
*Opioid [[overdose]] 
*[[Oxycontin]] [[overdose]]
*Pain killer [[overdose]]
*[[Pickwickian Syndrome]]
*[[Poisoning]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Retroperitoneal bleed]]
*[[Sepsis syndrome]]
*[[Shock]]
*[[Sleep apnea ]]
*[[Snake bite]]
*[[Status asthmaticus]]
*[[Stillbirth]]
*[[Stroke]]
*[[Subarachnoid hemorrhage]]
*[[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]]
*[[Suicide]]
*Sleeping pill [[overdose]]
*Toxic/metabolic disturbances
*Tranquilizer addiction
*[[Tension pneumothorax]]
* Toxic/metabolic disturbances
*[[Thyrotoxicosis]]
*[[Toxic shock syndrome]]
*[[Transfusion reaction]]
*[[Venom]]
===Complete Differential Diagnosis of the Causes of Sudden Death Including Sudden Cardiac Death===
{{MultiCol}}
*3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1
*Acute aortic insufficiency
*[[Acute coronary syndrome]]
*Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency
*Amniotic fluid syndrome
*Amyloid cardiopathy
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Aneurysm]]
*[[Aortic dissection]]
*[[Aortic stenosis]]
*Aorto-ventricular tunnel
*[[Apoplexy]]
*[[Appendicitis]]
*[[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]]
*Arterial dissections with lentiginosis
*[[Asphyxia]]
*[[Asymmetric septal hypertrophy ]]
*Atrial cardiomyopathy with heart block
*Atrial fibrillation, familial 1
*Atrial myxoma, familial
*[[Bleeding]] excessive
*[[Brugada syndrome]]
*[[Cardiac tamponade]]
*Cardiomyopathy dilated with conduction defect
*[[Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia]]
*Childbirth hemorrhage
*[[Commotio cordis]]
*[[Complete heart block]]
*[[Congenital heart block ]]
*[[Congenital heart disease]]
*[[Congestive heart failure]]
*Coronary arteries - congenital malformation
*[[Coronary artery disease]]
*Diabetic ketoacidosis - typically from undiagnosed diabetes
*[[Drug allergy]]
*[[Drug]] [[overdose]]
*[[Encephalitis]]
*[[Familial dilated cardiomyopathy ]]
*Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 1
*[[Flu]]mainly in the elderly, infants, infirm or chronically ill
*[[Food allergy]]
*[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]]
*[[Giant cell myocarditis ]]
*[[Heart attack]]
*[[Heart failure ]]
*Homicide
*Hyperbilirubinemia transient, familial, neonatal
*[[Hypercalcemia]]
*[[Hypercapnia]]
*[[Hyperkalemia]]
*[[Hypokalemia]]
*[[Hypoxia]]
*[[Injury]]
*[[Insect bite]]
*[[Intracranial hemmorhage]]
*[[Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome]]
*Kugel-Stoloff syndrome
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Marfan syndrome ]]
*[[Meningitis]]
*[[Meningococcal disease]]
*[[Mitral valve prolapse]]
*[[Multifocal ventricular premature beats ]]
*[[Myasthenia gravis]]
*[[Myocarditis]]
*[[Naxos disease ]]
*[[Neurocysticercosis ]]
*[[Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy]]
*Opioid [[overdose]] 
*[[Oxycontin]] overdose
*Pain killer overdose
*[[Papillary muscle rupture]]
*Paroxysmal ventricular fibrillation
*[[Pickwickian Syndrome]]
*[[Poisoning]]
*Polymorphic catecholergic ventricular tachycardia
*Prescribed medication addiction
*[[Prinzmetal's variant angina ]]
*[[Prolonged Q-T Interval Syndrome]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Retroperitoneal bleed]]
*Motor Vehicle accident
*[[Romano-Ward syndrome ]]
*[[Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
*[[Sepsis syndrome]]
*[[Shock]]
*[[Short QT syndrome ]]
*[[Sick sinus syndrome]]
*Sinus node disease
*[[Sleep apnea ]]
*Sleeping pill [[overdose]]
*[[Snake bite]]
*[[ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction]]
*[[Status asthmaticus]]
*[[Stillbirth]]
*[[Stokes-Adams Syndrome]]
*[[Stroke]]
*Subaortic stenosis - short stature syndrome
*[[Subarachnoid hemorrhage]]
*Sudden Arrhythmia Death Syndrome
*[[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]]
*[[Suicide]]
*[[Tension pneumothorax]]
*[[Thyrotoxicosis]]
*[[Timothy syndrome ]]
*[[Toxic shock syndrome]]
*Toxic/metabolic disturbances
*Tranquilizer addiction
*[[Transfusion reaction]]
*[[Uhl anomaly ]]
*[[Valvular Heart Disease]]
*[[Venom]]
*[[Ventricular rupture]]
*Ventricular tachycardia, catecholaminergic polymorphic, 1
*[[Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome]]
{{EndMultiCol}}
===Complete Differential Diagnosis of the Causes of Sudden Death Including Sudden Cardiac Death===
(By organ system)
{|style="width:70%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" |
Amyloid cardiopathy,
[[Congestive heart failure]],
Ventricular rupture,
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Ischemic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Hypoxia]],
[[Coronary thrombosis]],
[[Coronary vasospasm]],
[[Coronary artery aneurysm]],
[[Prinzmetal's variant angina ]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Pericardial'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Cardiac tamponade]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Myocardial'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Asymmetric septal hypertrophy ]],
[[ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction]],
[[Dilated cardiomyopathy]],
[[Giant cell myocarditis ]],
[[Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]],
Kugel-Stoloff syndrome ,
[[Myocardial infarction]],
[[Myocarditis]],
[[Rupture of the papillary muscles]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Endocardial/Valvular'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Mitral valve prolapse]],
[[Valvular Heart Disease]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Conduction/Arrhythmia'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy]],
[[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]],
[[Brugada syndrome]],
Complete atrioventricular block,
Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome,
[[Prolonged Q-T Interval Syndrome]],
[[Multifocal ventricular premature beats ]],
[[Naxos disease ]],
[[Romano-Ward syndrome ]],
[[Sick sinus syndrome]],
[[Short QT syndrome ]],
Sinus node disease,
[[Stokes-Adams Syndrome]],
Sudden Arrhythmia Death Syndrome,
[[Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''* Vascular'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
Acute aortic insufficiency,
[[Acute coronary syndrome]],
[[Aortic dissection]],
[[Aortic stenosis]],
Aorto-ventricular tunnel,
[[Arteritis]],
[[Coronary artery disease]],
Coronary arteries - congenital malformation ,
[[Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Congenital/Developmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Congenital heart disease]],
[[Congenital heart block ]],
Congenital Long QT syndrome,
[[Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy]],
[[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]],
[[Uhl anomaly ]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Snake bite]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Drug allergy]],
[[Drug overdose]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia]],
Diabetic ketoacidosis - typically from undiagnosed diabetes,
[[Thyrotoxicosis]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hypothermia]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Appendicitis]],
[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]],
[[Retroperitoneal bleed]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Brugada syndrome]],
3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1,
[[Familial dilated cardiomyopathy ]],
Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 1,
Hyperbilirubinemia transient, familial neonatal,
[[Marfan syndrome ]],
[[Timothy syndrome ]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Transfusion reaction]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Flu]] mainly in the elderly, infants, infirm or chronically ill,
[[Neurocysticercosis ]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Apoplexy]],
[[Encephalitis]],
[[Intracranial hemmorhage]],
[[Meningitis]],
[[Stroke]],
[[Subarachnoid hemorrhage]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1,
Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency ,
[[Food allergy]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
Amniotic fluid syndrome ,
Childbirth hemorrhage,
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
Atrial myxoma, familial
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Opthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
Opioid overdose  ,
Oxycontin [[overdose]],
Pain killer [[overdose]] ,
Sleeping pill [[overdose]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Hypercapnia]],
[[Pickwickian Syndrome]],
[[Pulmonary embolism]],
[[Tension pneumothorax]],
[[Status asthmaticus]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Hypercalcemia]],
[[Hypokalemia]],
[[Hyperkalemia]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Amyloidosis]],
[[Anaphylaxis]],
[[Myasthenia gravis]],
[[Sarcoidosis]],
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Commotio cordis]],
Homicide,
Motor Vehicle accident
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|
[[Shock]],
[[Asphyxia]],
[[Insect bite]]
[[Sepsis syndrome]],
[[Shock]]
|-
|}


==Cardiac Arrest as a Subtype of Sudden Death==
==Cardiac Arrest as a Subtype of Sudden Death==

Revision as of 01:42, 5 February 2011

For patient information click here

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

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Overview

The term sudden cardiac death refers to natural death from cardiac causes, heralded by abrupt loss of consciousness within one hour of the onset of acute symptoms.[1] Other forms of sudden death may be noncardiac in origin and are therefore termed sudden death rather than sudden cardiac death. Examples of this include respiratory arrest (such as due to airway obstruction, which may be seen in cases of choking or asphyxiation), toxicity or poisoning, anaphylaxis, or trauma.[2]

It is important to make a distinction between this term and the related term cardiac arrest, which refers to cessation of cardiac pump function which may be reversible (i.e., may not be fatal). The phrase Sudden Cardiac Death is a public health concept incorporating the features of natural, rapid, and unexpected. It does not specifically refer to the mechanism or cause of death. Although the most frequent underlying cause of Sudden Cardiac Death is Coronary Artery Disease, other categories of causes are listed below.

Complete Differential Diagnosis for Sudden Cardiac Death

Complete Differential Diagnosis for Sudden Non-Cardiac Death


Complete Differential Diagnosis of the Causes of Sudden Death Including Sudden Cardiac Death


Complete Differential Diagnosis of the Causes of Sudden Death Including Sudden Cardiac Death

(By organ system)

Cardiovascular

Amyloid cardiopathy, Congestive heart failure, Ventricular rupture,

* Ischemic

Hypoxia, Coronary thrombosis, Coronary vasospasm, Coronary artery aneurysm, Prinzmetal's variant angina ,

* Pericardial

Cardiac tamponade,

* Myocardial

Asymmetric septal hypertrophy , ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction, Dilated cardiomyopathy, Giant cell myocarditis , Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Kugel-Stoloff syndrome , Myocardial infarction, Myocarditis, Rupture of the papillary muscles,

* Endocardial/Valvular

Mitral valve prolapse, Valvular Heart Disease,

* Conduction/Arrhythmia

Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia, Brugada syndrome, Complete atrioventricular block, Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome, Prolonged Q-T Interval Syndrome, Multifocal ventricular premature beats , Naxos disease , Romano-Ward syndrome , Sick sinus syndrome, Short QT syndrome , Sinus node disease, Stokes-Adams Syndrome, Sudden Arrhythmia Death Syndrome, Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome,

* Vascular

Acute aortic insufficiency, Acute coronary syndrome, Aortic dissection, Aortic stenosis, Aorto-ventricular tunnel, Arteritis, Coronary artery disease, Coronary arteries - congenital malformation , Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm,

Congenital/Developmental

Congenital heart disease, Congenital heart block , Congenital Long QT syndrome, Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, Uhl anomaly

Chemical / poisoning

Snake bite

Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect

Drug allergy, Drug overdose

Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine

Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, Diabetic ketoacidosis - typically from undiagnosed diabetes, Thyrotoxicosis,

Environmental Hypothermia,
Gastroenterologic

Appendicitis, Gastrointestinal bleeding, Retroperitoneal bleed,

Genetic

Brugada syndrome, 3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1, Familial dilated cardiomyopathy , Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 1, Hyperbilirubinemia transient, familial neonatal, Marfan syndrome , Timothy syndrome

Hematologic No underlying causes
Iatrogenic Transfusion reaction
Infectious Disease

Flu mainly in the elderly, infants, infirm or chronically ill, Neurocysticercosis

Musculoskeletal / Ortho No underlying causes
Neurologic

Apoplexy, Encephalitis, Intracranial hemmorhage, Meningitis, Stroke, Subarachnoid hemorrhage,

Nutritional / Metabolic

3-methylglutaconic aciduria, type 1, Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase deficiency , Food allergy

Obstetric/Gynecologic

Amniotic fluid syndrome , Childbirth hemorrhage,

Oncologic

Atrial myxoma, familial

Opthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity

Opioid overdose , Oxycontin overdose, Pain killer overdose , Sleeping pill overdose

Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary

Hypercapnia, Pickwickian Syndrome, Pulmonary embolism, Tension pneumothorax, Status asthmaticus

Renal / Electrolyte

Hypercalcemia, Hypokalemia, Hyperkalemia,

Rheum / Immune / Allergy

Amyloidosis, Anaphylaxis, Myasthenia gravis, Sarcoidosis,

Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma

Commotio cordis, Homicide, Motor Vehicle accident

Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous

Shock, Asphyxia, Insect bite Sepsis syndrome, Shock

Cardiac Arrest as a Subtype of Sudden Death

A cardiac arrest, also known as cardiorespiratory arrest, cardiopulmonary arrest or circulatory arrest, is the abrupt cessation of normal circulation of the blood due to failure of the heart to contract effectively during systole.[3]

"Arrested" blood circulation prevents delivery of oxygen to all parts of the body. Cerebral hypoxia, or lack of oxygen supply to the brain, causes victims to lose consciousness and to stop normal breathing. Brain injury is likely if cardiac arrest is untreated for more than 5 minutes,[4] To improve survival and neurological recovery immediate response is paramount.[5]

Cardiac arrest is a medical emergency that, in certain groups of patients, is potentially reversible if treated early enough (See Reversible Causes, below). When unexpected cardiac arrest leads to death this is called sudden cardiac death (SCD)[3]. The primary first-aid treatment for cardiac arrest is cardiopulmonary resuscitation (commonly known as CPR) to provide circulatory support until availability of definitive medical treatment, which will vary dependant on the rhythm the heart is exhibiting, but often requires defibrillation.

Cardiac Arrest: Characteristics & Diagnosis

Cardiac Arrest is an abrupt cessation of pump function (evidenced by absence of a palpable pulse) of the heart that with prompt intervention could be reversed, but without it will lead to death.[3]

Due to inadequate cerebral perfusion, the patient will be unconscious and will have stopped breathing. The main diagnostic criterion to diagnose a cardiac arrest (as opposed to respiratory arrest, which shares many of the same features) is lack of circulation, however there are a number of ways of determining this.

In many cases, lack of carotid pulse is the gold standard for diagnosing cardiac arrest, but lack of a pulse (particularly in the peripheral pulses) may be a result of other conditions (e.g. shock), or simply an error on the part of the rescuer. Studies have shown that rescuers often make a mistake when checking the carotid pulse in an emergency, whether they are healthcare professionals[6][7] or lay persons.[8]

Owing to the inaccuracy in this method of diagnosis, some bodies such as the European Resuscitation Council (ERC) have de-emphasised its importance. The Resuscitation Council (UK), in line with the ERC's recommendations and those of the American Heart Association,[9] have suggested that the technique should be used only by healthcare professionals with specific training and expertise, and even then that it should be viewed in conjunction with other indicators such as agonal respiration.[10]

Various other methods for detecting circulation have been proposed. Guidelines following the 2000 International Liaison Committee on Resusciation (ILCOR) recommendations were for rescuers to look for "signs of circulation", but not specifically the pulse [9]. These signs included coughing, gasping, colour, twitching and movement.[11] However, in face of evidence that these guidelines were ineffective, the current recommendation of ILCOR is that cardiac arrest should be diagnosed in all casualties who are unconscious and not breathing normally.[9]

Following initial diagnosis of cardiac arrest, healthcare professionals further categorise the diagnosis based on the ECG/EKG rhythm. There are 4 rhythms which result in a cardiac arrest. Ventricular fibrillation (VF/VFib) and Pulseless Ventricular tachycardia (VT) are both responsive to a defibrillator and so are colloquially referred to as "Shockable" rhythms, whereas Asystole and Pulseless Electrical Activity (PEA) are non-shockable. The nature of the presenting hearth rhythm suggests different causes and treatment, and is used to guide the rescuer as to what treatment may be appropriate[10] (see Advanced Life Support and Advanced Cardiac Life Support, as well as the causes of arrest (below))

Cardiac Arrest: Causes

Cardiac arrest is synonymous with Clinical death. All disease processes leading to death have a period of (potentially) reversible cardiac arrest: the causes of arrest are, therefore, numerous. However, many of these conditions, rather than causing an arrest themselves, promote one of the "reversible causes" (see below), which then triggers the arrest (e.g. Choking leads to Hypoxia which in turn leads to an arrest). In some cases, the underlying mechanism cannot be overcome, leading to an unsuccessful resuscitation.

Among adults, ischemic heart disease is the predominant cause of arrest.[12] At autopsy 30% of victims show signs of recent myocardial infarction. Other cardiac conditions potentially leading to arrest include structural abnormalities, arrhythmias and cardiomyopathies. Non-cardiac causes include infections, overdoses, trauma and cancer, in addition to many others.

Cardiac Arrest: Reversible Causes

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), including adjunctive measures such as defibrillation, intubation and drug administration, is the standard of care for initial treatment of cardiac arrest. However, most cardiac arrests occur for a reason, and unless that reason can be found and overcome, CPR is often ineffective, or if it does result in a return of spontaneous circulation, this is short lived. [10]. As highlighted above, a variety of disease processes can lead to a cardiac arrest, however they usually boil down to one or more of the "Hs and Ts" (see below).

H's

T's

Cardiac Arrest or VT/VF Occurring As A Complication of STEMI

VT/VF and/or sudden death may occur early after the presentation of STEMI symptoms (<48 hours) and late after presentation (>48 hours)[13] [14][15][16][17][18]. The occurrence of both early and late VT/VF is associated with higher mortality. In a large contemporary analysis which included 5,745 high risk patients undergoing primary PCI in the APEX AMI trial, about 6% of patients developed VT/VF. the majority of the cases (64%) occurred during cardiac catheterization, and 90% of cases occurred withing 48 hours of presentation of STEMI symptoms. 90 day mortality was higher in those patients who sustained VT/VF (23.2% vs 3.6%, a multivariate hazard ratio of 3.63)[19]. Mortality was higher among those patients with late VT/VF (33.3%) vs early VT/VF (17.2%). It should also be noted that while many of the subsequent deaths in patients with VT/VF were due to sudden cardiac death, sudden cardiac death accounted for less than 50% of the mortality in VT/VF patients. Although VT/VF was not associated with one year mortality in the Primary Angioplasty and Myocardial Infarction (PAMI) trials [20], this is likely due to the fact that the PAMI population was of lower risk and had a lower one year mortality (4.5% in PAMI vs 23.2% reported in the present study).


Multivariate Predictors of Early VT/VF in the Setting of STEMI

  1. Pre-PCI thrombolysis in MI (TIMI) flow grade 0 (HR, 2.94; 95% CI, 1.93-4.47)
  2. Inferior infarction (HR, 2.16;95%CI, 1.58-2.93)
  3. Total baseline ST deviation (HR, 1.39;95%CI, 1.19-1.63)
  4. Creatinine clearance (HR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.83-0.94)
  5. Killip class greater than I (HR, 1.88;95%CI, 1.29-2.76)
  6. Baseline systolic blood pressure (HR, 0.92;95%CI, 0.87-0.98)
  7. Body weight (HR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.04-1.29)
  8. baseline heart rate greater than 70/min (HR,1.10;95%CI, 1.01-1.20)

c index for the model = 0.75

Multivariate Predictors of Late VT/VF in the setting of STEMI

  1. Systolic blood pressure (HR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.76-0.91)
  2. ST resolution less than 70% (HR, 3.17; 95% CI,1.60-6.28)
  3. Baseline heart rate greater than 70/min (HR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.08-1.33)
  4. Total baseline ST deviation (HR, 1.43; 95% CI, 1.14-1.79)
  5. Post-PCI TIMI flow less than grade 3(HR, 2.09;95%CI, 1.24-3.52)
  6. Pre-PCI TIMI flow grade 0(HR, 2.12;95%CI, 1.20-3.75),
  7. Blockers less than 24 hours (HR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.32-0.85)

c index for the model = 0.74

Multivariate modeling did demonstrate that about one-fifth of the variability in 90 day mortality was explained by VT/VF. It should be noted that many patients did not undergo left ventriculography in this study. When left ventricular ejection fraction was available and included in the multivariate model, it failed to be statistically significant. This is likely because it was co-linear with other variables such as Killip class, infarct location, TIMI flow and pulse.

Clinical Implications

Those patients with < TIMI grade 3 flow and < 70% ST resolution following PCI are at higher risk of VT/VF and should be monitored more carefully in an ICU or telemetry setting.

VT/VF Complicating AMI (both STEMI and NSTEMI taken together)

While the prior information focuses on STEMI, a study by Piccini et al of 9,000 patients focused on both STEMI as well as NSTEMI who underwent PCI within 24 hours of acute MI in the New York State Coronary Angioplasty Reporting System database [21]. 5.2% of patients sustained VT/VF and mortality was over 4 times higher among patients with VT/VF (16.3% vs 3.7%). Operator reported successful PCI was associated with a lower subsequent mortality associated with VT/VF. The following were identified as independent predictors of early VT/VF:

  1. Cardiogenic shock (OR, 4.10; 95%CI, 3.20-5.58)
  2. Heart failure (OR, 2.86;95% CI, 2.24-3.67)
  3. Chronic kidney disease (OR, 2.58; 95% CI, 1.27-5.23)
  4. Early presentation (6 hours from symptom onset; OR, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.18-1.81)

The following variables were found to be independently associated with a lower risk of VT/VF:

  1. History of hypertension (OR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.65-1.00)
  2. Lleft circumflex as infarct artery (OR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.65-0.99)
  3. Diabetes mellitus (OR,0.57; 95% CI, 0.42-0.78)
  4. Higher left ventricular ejection fraction (every 5% increment; OR, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.91-0.96)

Cardiac Arrest: Treatment

Out of hospital arrest

Most out-of-hospital cardiac arrests occur following a Myocardial infarction (heart attack), and present initially with a heart rhythm of Ventricular fibrillation. The patient is therefore likely to be responsive to defibrillation, and this has become the focus of pre-hospital interventions. Several organisations promote the idea of a "chain of survival", of which defibrillation is a key step. The links are:

  • Early recognition - If possible, recognition of illness before the patient develops a cardiac arrest will allow the rescuer to prevent its occurrence. Early recognition that a cardiac arrest has occurred is key to survival - for every minute a patient is in cardiac arrest, their chances of survival drop by roughly 10% [10]
  • Early CPR - This buys time by keeping vital organs perfused with oxygen whilst waiting for equipment and trained personnel to reverse the arrest. In particular, by keeping the brain supplied with oxygenated blood, chances of neurological damage are decreased.
  • Early defibrillation - This is the only effective for Ventricular fibrillation, and also has benefit in Ventricular tachycardia[10]. If defibrillation is delayed, then the rhythm is likely to degenerate into Asystole, for which outcomes are markedly worse.
  • Early post-resuscitation care - Treatment and rehabillitation in a hospital by specialist staff helps to prevent further complications, attempts to fully reverse the underlying cause, and promotes quality of life.

If one or more links in the chain are missing or delayed, then the chances of survival drop significantly. In particular, bystander CPR is an important indicator of survival: if it has not been carried out, then resuscitation is associated with very poor results. Paramedics in some jurisdictions are authorised to abandon resuscitation altogether if the early stages of the chain have not been carried out in a timely fashion prior to their arrival.

Because of this, considerable effort has been put into educating the public on the need for CPR. In addition, there is increasing use of public access defibrillation. This involves placing Automated external defibrillators in public places, and training key staff in these areas how to use them. This allows defibrillation to take place prior to the arrival of emergency services, and has been shown to lead to increased chances of survival. In addition, it has been shown that those who suffer arrests in remote locations have worse outcomes following cardiac arrest [22]: these areas often have First responder schemes, whereby members of the community receive training in resuscitation and are given a defibrillator, and called by the emergency medical services in the case of a collapse in their local area.

Cardiac Arrest: Hospital treatment

Treatment within a hospital usually follows advanced life support protocols. Depending on the diagnosis, various treatments are offered, ranging from defibrillation (for ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia) to surgery (for cardiac arrest which can be reversed by surgery - see causes of arrest, above) to medication (for asystole and PEA). All will includeCPR.

Peri-arrest period

The period (either before or after) surrounding a cardiac arrest is known as the peri-arrest period. During this period the patient is in a highly unstable condition and must be constantly monitored in order to halt the progression or repeat of a full cardiac arrest. The preventative treatment used during the peri-arrest period depends on the causes of the impending arrest and the likelihood such an event occurring.

Cardiac Arrest: Prognosis

The out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) has a worse survival rate (2-8% at discharge and 8-22% on admission), than an in-hospital cardiac arrest (15% at discharge). The principal determining factor is the initially documented rhythm. Patients with VF/VT have 10-15 times more chance of surviving than those suffering from Pulseless electrical activity or Asystole (as they are sensitive to defibrillation, whereas asystole and PEA are not).

Since mortality in case of OHCA is high, programs were developed to improve survival rate. A study by Bunch et al showed that, although mortality in case of ventricular fibrillation is high, rapid intervention with a defibrillator increases survival rate to that of patients that did not have a cardiac arrest.Eisenberg MS, Mengert TJ (2001). "Cardiac resuscitation". N. Engl. J. Med. 344 (17): 1304–13. PMID 11320390. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)</ref>[23]

Survival is mostly related to the cause of the arrest (see above). In particular, patients who have suffered hypothermia have an increased survival rate, possibly because the cold protects the vital organs from the effects of tissue hypoxia. Survival rates following an arrest induced by toxins is very much dependent on identifying the toxin and administering an appropriate antidote. A patient who has suffered a myocardial infarction due to a blood clot in the Left coronary artery has a lower chance of survival as it cuts of the blood supply to most of the left ventricle (the chamber which must pump blood to the whole of the systemic circulation).

Cobbe et al (1996) conducted a study into survival rates from out of hospital cardiac arrest. 14.6% of those who had received resuscitation by ambulance staff survived as far as admission to an acute hospital ward. Of these, 59.3% died during that admission, half of these within the first 24 hours. 46.1% survived to hospital discharge (this is 6.75% of those who had been resuscitated by ambulance staff), however 97.5% suffered a mild to moderate neurological disability, and 2% suffered a major neurological disability. Of those who were successfully discharged from hospital, 70% were still alive 4 years after their discharge.[22][24]

Ballew (1997) performed a review of 68 earlier studies into prognosis following in-hospital cardiac arrest. They found a survival to discharge rate of 14% (this roughly double the rate for out of hospital arrest found by Cobbe et al (see above)), although there was a wide range (0-28%).[25]

Several high profile organisations (such as St John Ambulance and the British Heart Foundation) have promoted the "Chain of Survival", which is made up of 4 links, as a way to maximise prognosis following arrest:

  • Early Access - Identifying patients at risk of cardiac arrest early is the best way of improving prognosis, as it is often possible to prevent the arrest. Similarly, if the arrest is witnessed there is a much greater chance of survival, as treatment can begin straight away before tissue hypoxia sets in.
  • Early CPR - CPR is unlikely to revive the patient, but it does buy some time by keeping a (limited) circulation going until it is possible to reverse the arrest, thereby increasing the chances of this reversal being successful, and minimising the risk of cerebral hypoxia (which can lead to neurological impairment following return of circulation).
  • Early defibrillation - Patients who present with VF/VT can be defibrillated, and the earlier this happens the better, as VF/VT often degenerate into asystole (which is unshockable).
  • Early hospital care - Many patients suffer further arrests within the first 24 hours of admission, so it is better that they are in hospital where their chances of survival are a little higher.

Prevention

With positive outcomes following cardiac arrest so unlikely, a great deal of effort has been spent in finding effective strategies to prevent cardiac arrest.

As noted above, one of the prime causes of cardiac arrest outside of hospital is ischemic heart disease. Vast resources have been put into trying to reduce cardiovascular risks across much of the developed world. In particular schemes have been put in place to promote a healthy diet and exercise. For people considered to be particularly at risk of heart disease, measures such as blood pressure control, prescription of cholesterol lowering medications, and other medico-therapeutic interventions, have been widely used. A magnesium deficiency, or lower levels of magnesium, can contribute to heart disease and a healthy diet that contains adequte magnesium may help prevent heart disease.[26] Magnesium can be used to enhance long term treatment, so it may be effective in long term prevention.

Patients in hospital are far less likely to have a cardiac arrest caused of primary cardiac origin, and hence present in Asystole or PEA, and have bleak outcomes. Extensive research has shown that patients in general wards often deteriorate for several hours or even days before a cardiac arrest occurs [27]. This has been attributed to a lack of knowledge and skill amongst ward based staff, in particular a failure to carry out measurement of the Respiratory rate, which is often the major predictor of a deterioration and can often change up to 48 hours prior to a cardiac arrest. In response to this, many hospitals now have increased training for ward based staff. A number of "early warning" systems also exist which aim to quantify the risk which patients are at of deterioration based on their vital signs and thus provide a guide to staff. In addition, specialist staff are being utilised more effectively in order to augment the work already being done at ward level. These include:

  • Crash teams (also known as Code teams) - These are designated staff members who have particular expertise in resuscitation, who are called to the scene of all arrests within the hospital.
  • Medical Emergency Teams - These teams respond to all emergencies, with the aim of treating the patient in the acute phase of their illness in order to prevent a cardiac arrest.
  • Critical care outreach - As well as providing the services of the other two types of team, these teams are also responsible for educating non-specialist staff. In addition, they help to facilitate transfers between intensive care/high dependency units and the general hospital wards. This is particularly important, as many studies have shown that a significant percentage of patients discharged from critical care environments quickly deteriorate and are re-admitted - the outreach team offers support to ward staff to prevent this from happening.

Implantable cardioverter defibrillators

A technically based intervention to prevent further cardiac arrest episodes is the use of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD). This device is implanted in to the patient and can offer a 'pacemaker' effect to the heart as well as acting as an instant defibrillator in the event of arrhythmia. A recent study by Birnie et al at the University of Ottawa Heart Institute has demonstrated that ICDs are underused in both the United States and Canada.[28] An accompanying editorial by Simpson explores some of the economic, geographic, social and political reasons for this.[29]

Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death

ACC / AHA Guidelines- Recommendations for Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators (DO NOT EDIT) [30]

Class I

1. ICD therapy is indicated in patients who are survivors of cardiac arrest due to VF or hemodynamically unstable sustained VT after evaluation to define the cause of the event and to exclude any completely reversible causes. (Level of Evidence: A)

2. ICD therapy is indicated in patients with structural heart disease and spontaneous sustained VT, whether hemodynamically stable or unstable. (Level of Evidence: B)

3. ICD therapy is indicated in patients with syncope of undetermined origin with clinically relevant, hemodynamically significant sustained VT or VF induced at electrophysiological study. (Level of Evidence: B)

4. ICD therapy is indicated in patients with LVEF less than 35% due to prior MI who are at least 40 days post-MI and are in NYHA functional Class II or III. (Level of Evidence: A)

5. ICD therapy is indicated in patients with nonischemic DCM who have an LVEF less than or equal to 35% and who are in NYHA functional Class II or III. (Level of Evidence: B)

6. ICD therapy is indicated in patients with LV dysfunction due to prior MI who are at least 40 days post-MI, have an LVEF less than 30%, and are in NYHA functional Class I. (Level of Evidence: A)

7. ICD therapy is indicated in patients with nonsustained VT due to prior MI, LVEF less than 40%, and inducible VF or sustained VT at electrophysiological study. (Level of Evidence: B)

Class IIa

1. ICD implantation is reasonable for patients with unexplained syncope, significant LV dysfunction, and nonischemic DCM. (Level of Evidence: C)

2. ICD implantation is reasonable for patients with sustained VT and normal or near-normal ventricular function. (Level of Evidence: C)

3. ICD implantation is reasonable for patients with HCM who have 1 or more major{dagger} risk factors for SCD. (Level of Evidence: C)

4. ICD implantation is reasonable for the prevention of SCD in patients with ARVD/C who have 1 or more risk factors for SCD. (Level of Evidence: C)

5. ICD implantation is reasonable to reduce SCD in patients with long-QT syndrome who are experiencing syncope and/or VT while receiving beta blockers. (Level of Evidence: B)

6. ICD implantation is reasonable for non hospitalized patients awaiting transplantation. (Level of Evidence: C)

7. ICD implantation is reasonable for patients with Brugada syndrome who have had syncope. (Level of Evidence: C)

8. ICD implantation is reasonable for patients with Brugada syndrome who have documented VT that has not resulted in cardiac arrest. (Level of Evidence: C)

9. ICD implantation is reasonable for patients with catecholaminergic polymorphic VT who have syncope and/or documented sustained VT while receiving beta blockers. (Level of Evidence: C)

10. ICD implantation is reasonable for patients with cardiac sarcoidosis, giant cell myocarditis, or Chagas disease. (Level of Evidence: C)

Class IIb

1. ICD therapy may be considered in patients with nonischemic heart disease who have an LVEF of less than or equal to 35% and who are in NYHA functional Class I. (Level of Evidence: C)

2. ICD therapy may be considered for patients with long-QT syndrome and risk factors for SCD. (Level of Evidence: B)

3. ICD therapy may be considered in patients with syncope and advanced structural heart disease in whom thorough invasive and noninvasive investigations have failed to define a cause. (Level of Evidence: C)

4. ICD therapy may be considered in patients with a familial cardiomyopathy associated with sudden death. (Level of Evidence: C)

5. ICD therapy may be considered in patients with LV noncompaction. (Level of Evidence: C)

Class III

1. ICD therapy is not indicated for patients who do not have a reasonable expectation of survival with an acceptable functional status for at least 1 year, even if they meet ICD implantation criteria specified in the Class I, IIa, and IIb recommendations above. (Level of Evidence: C)

2. ICD therapy is not indicated for patients with incessant VT or VF. (Level of Evidence: C)

3. ICD therapy is not indicated in patients with significant psychiatric illnesses that may be aggravated by device implantation or that may preclude systematic follow-up. (Level of Evidence: C)

4. ICD therapy is not indicated for NYHA Class IV patients with drug-refractory congestive heart failure who are not candidates for cardiac transplantation or CRT-D. (Level of Evidence: C)

5. ICD therapy is not indicated for syncope of undetermined cause in a patient without inducible ventricular tachyarrhythmias and without structural heart disease. (Level of Evidence: C)

6. ICD therapy is not indicated when VF or VT is amenable to surgical or catheter ablation (e.g., atrial arrhythmias associated with the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, RV or LV outflow tract VT, idiopathic VT, or fascicular VT in the absence of structural heart disease). (Level of Evidence: C)

7. ICD therapy is not indicated for patients with ventricular tachyarrhythmias due to a completely reversible disorder in the absence of structural heart disease (e.g., electrolyte imbalance, drugs, or trauma). (Level of Evidence: B)

ACC / AHA Guidelines- Recommendations for Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators in Pediatric Patients and Patients With Congenital Heart Disease (DO NOT EDIT) [30]

Class I

1. ICD implantation is indicated in the survivor of cardiac arrest after evaluation to define the cause of the event and to exclude any reversible causes. (Level of Evidence: B)

2. ICD implantation is indicated for patients with symptomatic sustained VT in association with congenital heart disease who have undergone hemodynamic and electrophysiological evaluation. Catheter ablation or surgical repair may offer possible alternatives in carefully selected patients. (Level of Evidence: C)

Class IIa

1. ICD implantation is reasonable for patients with congenital heart disease with recurrent syncope of undetermined origin in the presence of either ventricular dysfunction or inducible ventricular arrhythmias at electrophysiological study. (Level of Evidence: B)

Class IIb

1. ICD implantation may be considered for patients with recurrent syncope associated with complex congenital heart disease and advanced systemic ventricular dysfunction when thorough invasive and noninvasive investigations have failed to define a cause. (Level of Evidence: C)

Class III

1. All Class III recommendations found in Section 3, "Indications for Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Therapy," apply to pediatric patients and patients with congenital heart disease, and ICD implantation is not indicated in these patient populations. (Level of Evidence: C)

Cardiac Arrest: Ethical Issues

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and advanced cardiac life support are not always in a person's best interest. This is particularly true in the case of terminal illnesses when resuscitation will not alter the outcome of the disease. Properly performed CPR often fractures the rib cage, especially in older patients or those suffering from osteoporosis. Defibrillation, especially repeated several times as called for by ACLS protocols, may also cause electrical burns.

Some people with a terminal illness choose to avoid such measures and die peacefully. People with views on the treatment they wish to receive in the event of a cardiac arrest should discuss these views with both their doctor and with their family. A patient may ask their doctor to record a do not resuscitate (DNR) order in the medical record. Alternatively, in many jurisdictions, a person may formally state their wishes in an advance directive or advance health directive.


See also

References

  1. Myerburg, Robert J. "Cardiac Arrest and Sudden Cardiac Death" in Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, 7th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2005.
  2. Sudden Unexpected Death: Causes and Contributing Factors on poptop.hypermart.net.
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 16th Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, ISBN 0-07-140235-7
  4. Safar P (1986). "Cerebral resuscitation after cardiac arrest: a review". Circulation. 74 (6 Pt 2): IV138–53. PMID 3536160. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. Irwin and Rippe's Intensive Care Medicine by Irwin and Rippe, Fifth Edition (2003), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, ISBN 0-7817-3548-3
  6. Flesche CW, Breuer S, Mandel LP, Breivik H, Tarnow J. (1994) The ability of health professionals to check the carotid pulse. Circulation Vol. 90: I–288.
  7. Ochoa FJ, Ramalle-Gómara E, Carpintero JM, García A, Saralegui I (1998). "Competence of health professionals to check the carotid pulse". Resuscitation. 37 (3): 173–5. PMID 9715777. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. Bahr J, Klingler H, Panzer W, Rode H, Kettler D (1997). "Skills of lay people in checking the carotid pulse". Resuscitation. 35 (1): 23–6. PMID 9259056. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. 9.0 9.1 9.2 "2005 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care". Circulation. 112 (24 Suppl): IV1–203. 2005. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166550. PMID 16314375. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  10. 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Resuscitation Council UK (2005). Resuscitation Guidelines 2005 London: Resuscitation Council UK.
  11. St John Ambulance, St Andrew's Ambulance Association, British Red Cross (2002) (8th Ed.) First Aid Manual. London: Dorling Kindersley
  12. Eisenberg MS, Mengert TJ (2001). "Cardiac resuscitation". N. Engl. J. Med. 344 (17): 1304–13. PMID 11320390. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. Zehender M, Utzolino S, Furtwängler A, Kasper W, Meinertz T, Just H (1991). "Time course and interrelation of reperfusion-induced ST changes and ventricular arrhythmias in acute myocardial infarction". Am. J. Cardiol. 68 (11): 1138–42. PMID 1951071. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  14. Gressin V, Louvard Y, Pezzano M, Lardoux H (1992). "Holter recording of ventricular arrhythmias during intravenous thrombolysis for acute myocardial infarction". Am. J. Cardiol. 69 (3): 152–9. PMID 1731450. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. Six AJ, Louwerenburg JH, Kingma JH, Robles de Medina EO, van Hemel NM (1991). "Predictive value of ventricular arrhythmias for patency of the infarct-related coronary artery after thrombolytic therapy". Br Heart J. 66 (2): 143–6. PMC 1024606. PMID 1883665. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  16. Buckingham TA, Devine JE, Redd RM, Kennedy HL (1986). "Reperfusion arrhythmias during coronary reperfusion therapy in man. Clinical and angiographic correlations". Chest. 90 (3): 346–51. PMID 3743145. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. Berger PB, Ruocco NA, Ryan TJ, Frederick MM, Podrid PJ (1993). "Incidence and significance of ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation in the absence of hypotension or heart failure in acute myocardial infarction treated with recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator: results from the Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) Phase II trial". J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 22 (7): 1773–9. PMID 8245327. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. Newby KH, Thompson T, Stebbins A, Topol EJ, Califf RM, Natale A (1998). "Sustained ventricular arrhythmias in patients receiving thrombolytic therapy: incidence and outcomes. The GUSTO Investigators". Circulation. 98 (23): 2567–73. PMID 9843464. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. Mehta RH, Starr AZ, Lopes RD, Hochman JS, Widimsky P, Pieper KS, Armstrong PW, Granger CB (2009). "Incidence of and outcomes associated with ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation in patients undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention". JAMA : the Journal of the American Medical Association. 301 (17): 1779–89. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.600. PMID 19417195. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. Mehta RH, Harjai KJ, Grines L, et al; Primary Angioplasty in Myocardial Infarction (PAMI) Investigators. Sustained ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation in the cardiac catheterization laboratory among patients receiving primary percutaneous coronary intervention: incidence, predictors, and outcomes. JAmColl Cardiol. 2004;43(10):1765-1772.
  21. Piccini JP, Berger JS, Brown DL. Early sustained ventricular arrhythmias complicating acute myocardial infarction. Am J Med. 2008;121(9):797-804.
  22. 22.0 22.1 Lyon RM, Cobbe SM, Bradley JM, Grubb NR (2004). "Surviving out of hospital cardiac arrest at home: a postcode lottery?". Emerg Med J. 21 (5): 619–24. doi:10.1136/emj.2003.010363. PMC 1726412. PMID 15333549. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  23. Bunch TJ, White RD, Gersh BJ; et al. (2003). "Long-term outcomes of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest after successful early defibrillation". N. Engl. J. Med. 348 (26): 2626–33. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa023053. PMID 12826637. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  24. Cobbe SM, Dalziel K, Ford I, Marsden AK (1996). "Survival of 1476 patients initially resuscitated from out of hospital cardiac arrest". BMJ. 312 (7047): 1633–7. PMC 2351362. PMID 8664715. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  25. Ballew KA (1997). "Cardiopulmonary resuscitation". BMJ. 314 (7092): 1462–5. PMC 2126720. PMID 9167565. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  26. Rosanoff A, Seelig MS (2004). "Comparison of mechanism and functional effects of magnesium and statin pharmaceuticals". J Am Coll Nutr. 23 (5): 501S–505S. PMID 15466951. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. Kause J, Smith G, Prytherch D, Parr M, Flabouris A, Hillman K (2004). "A comparison of antecedents to cardiac arrests, deaths and emergency intensive care admissions in Australia and New Zealand, and the United Kingdom--the ACADEMIA study". Resuscitation. 62 (3): 275–82. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2004.05.016. PMID 15325446. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  28. Birnie DH, Sambell C, Johansen H; et al. (2007). "Use of implantable cardioverter defibrillators in Canadian and US survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest". CMAJ. 177 (1): 41–6. doi:10.1503/cmaj.060730. PMC 1896034. PMID 17606938. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  29. Simpson CS (2007). "Implantable cardioverter defibrillators work--so why aren't we using them?". CMAJ. 177 (1): 49–51. doi:10.1503/cmaj.070470. PMC 1896028. PMID 17606939. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  30. 30.0 30.1 Epstein AE, DiMarco JP, Ellenbogen KA; et al. (2008). "ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 Guidelines for Device-Based Therapy of Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 Guideline Update for Implantation of Cardiac Pacemakers and Antiarrhythmia Devices): developed in collaboration with the American Association for Thoracic Surgery and Society of Thoracic Surgeons". Circulation. 117 (21): e350–408. PMID 18483207. Text "doi:10.1161/CIRCUALTIONAHA.108.189742 " ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Additional resources

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