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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
Subdural empyema is a localized collection of [[pus]] between the [[dura mater]] and [[arachnoid mater]], occurring in either the [[intracranial space]] or the [[spinal canal]].<ref name =MEDICI>{{Cite book | last1 = Longo | first1 = Dan L. (Dan Louis) | title = Harrison's principles of internal medici | date = 2012 | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-174889-6 | pages = }}</ref><ref name="AgrawalTimothy2007">{{cite journal|last1=Agrawal|first1=Amit|last2=Timothy|first2=Jake|last3=Pandit|first3=Lekha|last4=Shetty|first4=Lathika|last5=Shetty|first5=J.P.|title=A Review of Subdural Empyema and Its Management|journal=Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice|volume=15|issue=3|year=2007|pages=149–153|issn=1056-9103|doi=10.1097/01.idc.0000269905.67284.c7}}</ref><ref name="pmid12521560">{{cite journal| author=Greenlee JE| title=Subdural Empyema. | journal=Curr Treat Options Neurol | year= 2003 | volume= 5 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=12521560 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12521560 }} </ref> | |||
===Intracranial Subdural Empyema=== | ===Intracranial Subdural Empyema=== | ||
Intracranial subdural empyema is usually unilateral, involving the base of the [[brain]], its convexity, the inter-hemispheric fissure along the [[falx cerebri]], or the [[posterior cranial fossa|posterior fossa]]. The anatomy of the [[meninges|meningeal membranes]] dictate the course and characteristics of the disease. The [[dura mater]] and the [[arachnoid mater]], which define the initial limits of the [[empyema]], are joined only at the base of the [[brain]], along the [[falx cerebri]] and at the [[tentorium cerebelli]]. This virtual space between these two [[meninges|meningeal membranes]] creates the potential for the infection to spread along the [[cerebral hemisphere]], inter-hemispheric fissure, and [[posterior cranial fossa]]. | |||
* | Intracranial subdual empyema's main origin generally depends on the age of the individual. In younger children, the [[subdural empyema|empyema]] most commonly results from a complication of purulent [[meningitis]], while in older children and adults, it most commonly results from complication of [[sinusitis]], [[otitis media]], or [[mastoiditis]]. In the case of [[sinusitis]], the [[frontal sinus]] is the most commonly affected sinus, followed by the [[ethmoid sinus|ethmoidal]], [[sphenoidal sinuses|sphenoidal]], and [[maxillary sinus|maxillary]] sinuses. The infection may then spread in two ways:<ref name =MEDICI>{{Cite book | last1 = Longo | first1 = Dan L. (Dan Louis) | title = Harrison's principles of internal medici | date = 2012 | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-174889-6 | pages = }}</ref><ref name="AgrawalTimothy2007">{{cite journal|last1=Agrawal|first1=Amit|last2=Timothy|first2=Jake|last3=Pandit|first3=Lekha|last4=Shetty|first4=Lathika|last5=Shetty|first5=J.P.|title=A Review of Subdural Empyema and Its Management|journal=Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice|volume=15|issue=3|year=2007|pages=149–153|issn=1056-9103|doi=10.1097/01.idc.0000269905.67284.c7}}</ref><ref name="pmid12521560">{{cite journal| author=Greenlee JE| title=Subdural Empyema. | journal=Curr Treat Options Neurol | year= 2003 | volume= 5 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=12521560 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12521560 }} </ref><ref name="pmid24171874">{{cite journal| author=Hendaus MA| title=Subdural empyema in children. | journal=Glob J Health Sci | year= 2013 | volume= 5 | issue= 6 | pages= 54-9 | pmid=24171874 | doi=10.5539/gjhs.v5n6p54 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24171874 }} </ref> | ||
* | *Hematogenously, via retrograde [[infection]], from [[thrombophlebitis]] of mucosal veins, which drain the [[sinuses]] | ||
Other possible sources of infection may include: | *Contiguously via: | ||
**[[Bone]] erosion and [[Haversian canals]] in [[bone]], as a complication of [[osteomyelitis]] | |||
**[[Mastoid]] and [[middle ear]] by eroding the tegmen tympani | |||
**[[Frontal air sinus]] by erosion in its posterior wall. | |||
Other possible sources of infection may include:<ref name="KapuPande2013">{{cite journal|last1=Kapu|first1=Ravindranath|last2=Pande|first2=Anil|last3=Ramamurthi|first3=Ravi|last4=Vasudevan|first4=MC|title=Primary interhemispheric subdural empyemas: A report of three cases and review of literature|journal=Indian Journal of Neurosurgery|volume=2|issue=1|year=2013|pages=66|issn=2277-9167|doi=10.4103/2277-9167.110227}}</ref><ref name="pmid12521560">{{cite journal| author=Greenlee JE| title=Subdural Empyema. | journal=Curr Treat Options Neurol | year= 2003 | volume= 5 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=12521560 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12521560 }} </ref><ref name="pmid12521560">{{cite journal| author=Greenlee JE| title=Subdural Empyema. | journal=Curr Treat Options Neurol | year= 2003 | volume= 5 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=12521560 | doi= | pmc=|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12521560 }} </ref><ref name="Courville1944">{{cite journal|last1=Courville|first1=C. B.|title=SUBDURAL EMPYEMA SECONDARY TO PURULENT FRONTAL SINUSITIS: A CLINICOPATHOLOGIC STUDY OF FORTY-TWO CASES VERIFIED AT AUTOPSY|journal=Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery|volume=39|issue=3|year=1944|pages=211–230|issn=0886-4470|doi=10.1001/archotol.1944.00680010224003}}</ref> | |||
*[[Neurosurgery|Neurosurgical procedures]], such as [[subdural hematoma]] drainage, [[craniotomy]] and [[intracranial pressure]] monitoring | |||
*Head [[trauma]] | |||
*Following bacteremic seeding of an existing [[subdural hematoma]] | |||
The subdural empyema causes an [[inflammation|inflammatory reaction]] in the [[subdural space]], which may be accompanied by [[CSF]] [[pleocytosis]] and [[encephalitis]]. The venous extension of the [[infection]] may lead to hemorrhagic [[infarction]] or superficial [[abscess]]. Afterwards, [[cerebral edema]] and [[hydrocephalus]] may develop, which combined with the [[empyema]] creates a [[mass effect]] that increases [[intracranial pressure]], leading to [[transtentorial herniation]], [[brainstem]] compression, and death.<ref name="pmid12521560">{{cite journal| author=Greenlee JE| title=Subdural Empyema. | journal=Curr Treat Options Neurol | year= 2003 | volume= 5 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=12521560 | doi= | pmc=|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12521560 }} </ref><ref name="Courville1944">{{cite journal|last1=Courville|first1=C. B.|title=SUBDURAL EMPYEMA SECONDARY TO PURULENT FRONTAL SINUSITIS: A CLINICOPATHOLOGIC STUDY OF FORTY-TWO CASES VERIFIED AT AUTOPSY|journal=Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery|volume=39|issue=3|year=1944|pages=211–230|issn=0886-4470|doi=10.1001/archotol.1944.00680010224003}}</ref> The most common [[pathogens]] in the intracranial type are [[anaerobic]] and [[microaerophilic]] [[Streptococci]]. Other microorganisms such as '[[Escherichia coli]]'' and [[bacteroides]] may be present simultaneously. | |||
===Spinal Subdural Empyema=== | ===Spinal Subdural Empyema=== | ||
Spinal subdural empyema is more rare compared to intracranial. This type of infection follows a similar pathophysiology to intracranial subdural empyema. Potential sources of spread of infection include: | |||
*[[Blood]] | |||
* | *[[Osteomyelitis]] | ||
*[[ | *[[Meningitis]] | ||
*[[ | *[[Lumbar puncture]] | ||
*[[ | |||
Spinal subdural empyemas are | Spinal subdural empyemas are generally caused by [[Streptococci]] or ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]''.<ref name="pmid12521560">{{cite journal| author=Greenlee JE| title=Subdural Empyema. | journal=Curr Treat Options Neurol | year= 2003 | volume= 5 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=12521560 | doi= | pmc= |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12521560 }} </ref> | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
[[Category:Infectious disease]] | [[Category:Infectious disease]] | ||
{{WH}} | {{WH}} | ||
{{WS}} | {{WS}} | ||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: João André Alves Silva, M.D. [2]
Overview
Pathophysiology
Subdural empyema is a localized collection of pus between the dura mater and arachnoid mater, occurring in either the intracranial space or the spinal canal.[1][2][3]
Intracranial Subdural Empyema
Intracranial subdural empyema is usually unilateral, involving the base of the brain, its convexity, the inter-hemispheric fissure along the falx cerebri, or the posterior fossa. The anatomy of the meningeal membranes dictate the course and characteristics of the disease. The dura mater and the arachnoid mater, which define the initial limits of the empyema, are joined only at the base of the brain, along the falx cerebri and at the tentorium cerebelli. This virtual space between these two meningeal membranes creates the potential for the infection to spread along the cerebral hemisphere, inter-hemispheric fissure, and posterior cranial fossa.
Intracranial subdual empyema's main origin generally depends on the age of the individual. In younger children, the empyema most commonly results from a complication of purulent meningitis, while in older children and adults, it most commonly results from complication of sinusitis, otitis media, or mastoiditis. In the case of sinusitis, the frontal sinus is the most commonly affected sinus, followed by the ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses. The infection may then spread in two ways:[1][2][3][4]
- Hematogenously, via retrograde infection, from thrombophlebitis of mucosal veins, which drain the sinuses
- Contiguously via:
- Bone erosion and Haversian canals in bone, as a complication of osteomyelitis
- Mastoid and middle ear by eroding the tegmen tympani
- Frontal air sinus by erosion in its posterior wall.
Other possible sources of infection may include:[5][3][3][6]
- Neurosurgical procedures, such as subdural hematoma drainage, craniotomy and intracranial pressure monitoring
- Head trauma
- Following bacteremic seeding of an existing subdural hematoma
The subdural empyema causes an inflammatory reaction in the subdural space, which may be accompanied by CSF pleocytosis and encephalitis. The venous extension of the infection may lead to hemorrhagic infarction or superficial abscess. Afterwards, cerebral edema and hydrocephalus may develop, which combined with the empyema creates a mass effect that increases intracranial pressure, leading to transtentorial herniation, brainstem compression, and death.[3][6] The most common pathogens in the intracranial type are anaerobic and microaerophilic Streptococci. Other microorganisms such as 'Escherichia coli and bacteroides may be present simultaneously.
Spinal Subdural Empyema
Spinal subdural empyema is more rare compared to intracranial. This type of infection follows a similar pathophysiology to intracranial subdural empyema. Potential sources of spread of infection include:
Spinal subdural empyemas are generally caused by Streptococci or Staphylococcus aureus.[3]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Longo, Dan L. (Dan Louis) (2012). Harrison's principles of internal medici. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-174889-6.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Agrawal, Amit; Timothy, Jake; Pandit, Lekha; Shetty, Lathika; Shetty, J.P. (2007). "A Review of Subdural Empyema and Its Management". Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice. 15 (3): 149–153. doi:10.1097/01.idc.0000269905.67284.c7. ISSN 1056-9103.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Greenlee JE (2003). "Subdural Empyema". Curr Treat Options Neurol. 5 (1): 13–22. PMID 12521560.
- ↑ Hendaus MA (2013). "Subdural empyema in children". Glob J Health Sci. 5 (6): 54–9. doi:10.5539/gjhs.v5n6p54. PMID 24171874.
- ↑ Kapu, Ravindranath; Pande, Anil; Ramamurthi, Ravi; Vasudevan, MC (2013). "Primary interhemispheric subdural empyemas: A report of three cases and review of literature". Indian Journal of Neurosurgery. 2 (1): 66. doi:10.4103/2277-9167.110227. ISSN 2277-9167.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Courville, C. B. (1944). "SUBDURAL EMPYEMA SECONDARY TO PURULENT FRONTAL SINUSITIS: A CLINICOPATHOLOGIC STUDY OF FORTY-TWO CASES VERIFIED AT AUTOPSY". Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. 39 (3): 211–230. doi:10.1001/archotol.1944.00680010224003. ISSN 0886-4470.